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IlIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 




I 



MEMORABILIA. 



MEMORABILIA; 



OR 



RECOLLECTIONS, 



HISTORICAL, BIOGRAPHICAL, 



AND 



anttquartan. 



By JAMES SAVAGE. 



TAUNTON : 



PRINTED FOR JAMES SAVAGE, 

AND SOLD BY 

J. POOLE, BOOKSELLER, FORE-STREET, and 

BY BALDWIN, CRADOCK, & JOY, PATERNOSTER ROW, 

LONDON. 

1820. 






TAUNTON : 
PRINTED BV J. POOLE, FORE'STREKT. 



ADVERTISEMENT. 



T^HE following pages have been compiled from Tarious 
sources, and from an extensive course of reading. The 
Editor has in some instances placed his authorities in the 
notes at the bottom of the page ; and, where he has copied 
from former writers, he has inserted the names of those from 
whom he has borrowed his materials. His chief object has 
been to confine himself to facts ; he has therefore carefully- 
avoided giving opinions upon, or drawing conclusions from, the 
various subjects of which he has treated. He has endeavoured 
to place many points of history in a new light, and in every 
part to illustrate, in some degree, the several matters which 
have occupied his attention. It has been his desire to present 
the reader with a volume, from which he hopes both instruc- 
tion and amusement may be drawn, and he submits it with 
confidence, to the perusal of young persons in particular, 
as a collection of biographical and hiistorical Miscellanea, 
calculated to beguile the tedium of an hour, without incul. 
eating a single idea that may sully the purest mind. 

Taunton^ May n$ty 1820. 



ERRATA. 

Page 160— line 9-/or Edward the third— read Edward the first. 
223— line 2 of the note— deU Turkey. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Anecdotes of Dr. Kfnnicotf, ,.., 1 

Remarkable Historical Coincidences, 4 

Charles XH. of Sweden, 6 

British Prarls, 8 

Pillars of Commemoralioii, 9 

Mason, (hf Poet, 13 

Bishops of Sodor and Man, 17 

The Tdbie, 19 

Clocks, 20 

Aldu^ Manutius, 22 

Bottles of Skin, 24 

English Slave Trade, 25 

Oliver Cromwell's Wife, 26 

Shakes|)eare, , 28 

University Degrees, 31 

Guy Carleton, Lord Dorchester, 33 

Figs, 35 

Fruits cultivated at Rome in the time of Pliny, that are 

now grown in our English gardens, 37 

Peacocks, 51 

Ancient Libraries, 52 

King Charles the First, 58 

The Fair Geraldine and the Earl of Surrey, 60 

Jews in England, 66 

The English tJible, 67 

Luxury of Ancient Rome, . . ., 68 

Rhyme, 70 

Mr. Coquebert de iVlontbret, 72 

Dr. Thomas Pierce, 73 

Writing among the Greeks, 74 

Account of the Scriptoria, or Writing Rooms in the 

Monasteries of England 76 

Gildas, A^o/6', 77 

Emanu'*l Clirysoloras, Note^ 98 

Laurentius Valla, Note, 99 

Torture in England, 105 

J)r. Johnson's Conversation with the late King, 114 

Dr. lieattie's Conversation with the late King & Queen, 121 

Sacred Gardens, 128 

Sir Thomas Wyat, 129 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

Page, 

The Hand, a Symbol of Power, 132 

Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I, 133 

Last Moments of Philip Melancthon, i . , 142 

House of Commons, 145 

Mosaic Painting, 165 

King Egbert, 168 

The Latin Language, 171 

Dr. Herschel, 174 

Parodies, . . . . „ 177 

Mourning for the Dead, 178 

Garrick, , 179 

Lemons, 181 

Origin of the Point of Honour, 182 

Geoflfrey of Monmouth, 185 

Nennius, Note, 190 

Lifting up the Hand in Swearing, 205 

Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, 207 

King Arthur, 210 

Alchemy, 213 

Account of several Noble Families, in England, who 

owe their elevation to the Peerage to their Ancestors 

having been engaged in Trade, 214 

Last Moments of Queen Caroline, 220 

The Britons, according to the Greek and Latin Classics, 221 

Tattooing, Note, 223 

The Seven Sleepers, 227 

John Ray, the Naturalist, 230 

Francis Willoughby, Note, 230 

London Bankers and their Origin, 233 

Elucidation of the Ornaments with which the Greeks and 

Romans adorned the Human Head on Coins & Medals, 237 

The Tradescants, 243 

Orange Trees, 249 

Articles of Use and Luxury introduced into Europe by 

the Romans, 231 

Account of the Escape of the Earl of Nithsdalc from the 

Tower, in 1716, 255 

Account of the first rise of Fairs in Englatul, and the 

Manner of Living, in the 16th and 17th Centuries, .... 269 

Sir Ricliard Clough, 277 

Royal Clemency, 279 

Lotteries, ; 280 

Herculancum Manuscripts, 283 

Wolves in England, 286 

Professor PorsiMi, > . . . 288 

History of Sepulchral Monuments, 297 



MEMORABILIA. 



Dr. KENNICOTT. 

Dr. KENNICOTT was the son of the parish 
clerk of Totness, once master of a charity school 
in that town. At an early age young- Kennicott 
took the care of the school, and in that situation 
wrote some verses, addressed to the Hon. Mrs. 
Courtenay, which recommended him to her 
notice, and to that of many neighbouring gentle- 
men, who laudably opened a subscription to send 
him to Oxford. 



The following inscriptioji^ written hy Dr. Kennicott, it 

engraven on the tomb of his. parents : 

As Virtue should be of good Report, 

Sacred be this humble Monument to the Memory of 

BENJAMIN KENNICOTT, 

Parish Clerk of Totness, 

and ELIZABETH his Wife ; 

The latter an example of every Christian Duty, 

The former animated with the warmest zeal, regulated by the 

best good sense, and both constantly exerted 

for the salvation of himself and others. 

Reader ! soon shalt thou die also ; 

And as a Candidate for Immortality, strike thy breast and say, 

" Let me live the life of the righteous, that my 

latter end may be like his." 

Trifling are the dates of Time, where the subject is Eternity, 

Erected by their Son, B. Kennicott, D. D. 

Cnuon of Christ Church, Oxford. 

li 



2 DR. KENNICOTT. 

It is said that when Dr. Kennicott took orders, 
he came to officiate in his clerical capacity in his 
native town, — when his father, as parish clerk, 
proceeded to place the surplice on his shoulders, 
a struggle ensued between the modesty of the 
son and the honest pride of the parent, who insisted 
on paying that respect to his son which he had 
been accustomed to shew to other clergymen ; to 
this filial obedience he was obliged to submit. 
A circumstance is added, that his mother had 
often declared she should never be able to sup- 
port the joy of hearing her son preach ; and that 
on her attendance at the church, for the first time, 
she was so overcome as to be taken out in a state 
of temporary insensibility. 



The following Letter from Br, Kennicott to the Rev, William 
Daddo has been preserved : 

" To the Rev. Mr, Daddo, in Tiverton, Devon. 

«« Wadh, Coll, Mar, 30, 1744. 
'' Rev. and Hon. Sir, 

** Gratitude to benefactors is the great law of 
nature, and lest I should violate what was ever 
sacred, 1 presume to lay the following before you. 

** There are. Sir, in the world, gentlemen who 
confine their regards to self, or the circle of their 
own acquaintance, and there are (happy experi- 



DR. KENNICOTT. 15 

ence convinces me) who command their influence 
to enlarg-e and exert itself on persons remotely 
situate, both bv fortune and education. To you, 
Sir, belongs the honour of this encomium, — to 
me the pleasure of the obligation, and as I am 
now first at leisure in the place whither your 
goodness hns transphmted me, I lay this acknow- 
ledgment before you, as one of the movers in this 
system of exalted generosity; for when 1 consi- 
der myself as surrounded with benefactors, there 
seems a bright resemblance of the now exploded 
system of Ptolemy, in which, Sir, (you know) 
the heavenly bodies revolved around the central 
earth which was thus rendered completely blest 
by the contribution of their cheering and benign 
influence. 

" And now, Sir, the sentiments of duty rise so 
warm within me, that every expression of thanks 
seems faint, and I am lost in endeavours after a 
suitable acknowledgfment of mv obligations. 

" But I know. Sir, whom 1 am now addressing; 
I know those who most deserve can least bear 
praise, and that your goodness is so great, as even 
to reject the very thanks of the grateful ; like 
the sun in its splendour, which forbids the eye 
that offers to admire it. 

" That Heaven may reward yourself and Mrs. 
Daddo with its best favours, and console you 
under your parental sorrows, is my daily and 
fervent prayer ; and I shall esteem it one of the 

B 2 



4 REMARKABLE HISTORICAL COINCIDENCES. 

great honours of my life Id be favoured at your 
leisure wit" any commands or advices you shall 
condescend to bestou' on 

Rev. Sir, 
Your dutiful and obliged Servant, 

BENJAMIN KENNICOTT." 



The Rev. William Daddo was for many years 
head-master of BlundelVs Free School, in Tiver- 
ton, where young Kennicott received the rudi- 
ments of his classical education. Mr. Daddo 
having- acquired a considerable fortune from the 
emoluments of his school, quitted Tiverton, and 
retired to Bow-hill House, in the neighbourhood 
of Exeter, and there died many years ago, leaving 
a daughter, an only child, afterwards married to 
the Rev. Mr. Terry. 



REMARKABLE HISTORICAL 
COINCIDENCES. 

xVMONG the curiosities in the British Museum 
are shewn two helmets ; the one Roman, found 
in the ground on which the battle of Cannoe was 
fought, 21G years before Christ, and the other 
made of feathers, l)rought from one of the South 
Sea Islands, by Captain Cook. On comparing* 
these helmets, the shape will be found exactly 



REMARKABLE HISTORlCAT> COINCIDENCES. 5 

similar, thoug-h the latter wks made by an un- 
civilized people living- at the distance of more 
than 2000 years since the battle of Cannae was 
foug-ht, and who had never even heard of the 
Roman name. 

A second coincidence is found in the same 
collection. Two breast-plates are shewn to the 
visitors, exactly corresponding in uniformity of 
shape, though made of different materials, the one 
taken from the bosom of an Egyptian Mummy, 
which had been dissected, if I may be allowed 
to use the term, in the Museum, and the other 
brought by Captain Cook, among- various other 
curiosities, from the South Sea Islands. 

A third coincidence is the mode of cookery 
practised by the South Sea Islanders as describ- 
ed by Captain Cook, especially in roasting their 
hog-s. This is by means of hot stones placed in 
a hole dug in the ground. In Ossian's Poems 
the reader will find that the Caledonians of that 
time made use of the same method in cooking 
their hogs for the table. 

The extinction of the Roman Empire in the 
West, about the year 47G, by Odoacer, King of 
Italy, was attended by one of the most memora- 
ble coincidences in the history of mankind. 
The patrician Orestes had married the daughter 
of Count Romulus, of Pctovio in Noricum ; the 
name of Ait/justus, notwithstanding the jealousy 
of power, was known at Aquileia as a familiar 



6 CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. 

surname ; and the appellations of the two great 
founders, the first of the city of Rome, and the 
second of the Roman monarchy, were strangely 
united in the last of their successors. The son of 
Orestes succeeded to the throne of the Western 
Empire, and assumed and disgraced the names 
of Romulus Augustus; the first was corrup- 
ted into IVlomyllus by the Greeks, and the second 
has been changed by the Latins into the contemp- 
tible diminutive iVngustnhis. The life of this 
inoffensive youth, the last Sovereign of the Roman 
Empire in the West, was spared by the generous 
clemency of Odoacer, who dismissed him, with 
his whole family, from the imperial palace, fixed 
his annual allowance at 0000 pieces of Gold, and 
assigned the castle of Lucullus, in Campania, for 
the place of his exile or retirement. 



CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. 

That Charles the twelfth did not fall by a 
shot from the walls of Fredericshall, as is com- 
monly su|>posed, but met his death from a nearer 
and more secret hand, has been fully ascertained; 
and M. Megret, a French Enginrer, who accom- 
panied him, was no doubt, concerned in the 



CHARLES XTI. OF SWEDEN. 7 

murder. Many years afterwards, one Cronsted, 
an officer, on his death bed, confessed that he had 
himself, at the instigation of the Prince of Hesse, 
brother-in-law of Charles, and whose wife was 
declared Queen of Sweden, fired the shot that 
killed the unfortunate monarch. 

In the arsenal at Stockholm, the Swedes pre- 
serve, with great care, the clothes he was habited 
in at the time he fell. The coat is a plain blue 
cloth regimental one, such as every common sol- 
dier wore. Round the waist he had a broad buff 
leathern belt, in which hung his sword. The hat 
is torn only about an inch square, in that part of 
it which lies over the temple, and certainly would 
have been much more injured by a large shot. 
His gloves are of very fine leather, and as the left 
one is perfectly clean and unsoiled could only 
have been newly put on. Voltaire says that the 
instant the King received the shot, he had the 
force and courage to put his hand to his sword, 
and lay in that posture. The right hand glove 
is covered in the inside with blood, and the belt 
at that part where the hilt of his sword lay, is 
likewise bloody, so that it seems clear, he had 
previously put his hand to his head, on receiving 
the shot, before he attempted to draw his sword 
and make resistance. 

in the same case that contains his clothes is 
preserved the cap he wore on the terrible day at 
Bender, w hen he so desperately defended himself 



8 liRITlSH PEARLS. 

ag-ainst the Turks. It is of fur ; and has one tre- 
mendous cut on the side, which must have been 
within a hair's breadth of there ending the career 
of this wonderful man. 



BRITISH PEARLS, 



1 HE River Conway in North Wales was of 
considerable importance, even before the Roman 
invasion, for the Pearl muscle, (the My a Mar- 
garitifera of Linneeus) and Suetonius acknow- 
ledged, that one of his inducements for undertak- 
ing' the subjugation of Wales, was the Pearl 
Fishery carried forwards in that river. Accord- 
ing to Pliny, the muscles, called by the natives 
Kregindilin, were sought for with avidity by the 
Romans, and the pearls found within them were 
highly valued ; in proof of which it is asserted, 
that Julius Caesar, dedicated a breastplate set 
with British Pearls to Venus Genetrix, and placed 
it in her temple at Rome. A fine specimen from 
the Conway is said to have been presented to 
Catherine, consort of Charles II. by Sir Richard 
Wynne of Gwydir -, and it is further said that it 
has since contributed to adorn the regal crown 
of England, Lady Newborough possessed a 
good collection of the Conway j)earls, which she 
purchased of those who were fortunate enough to 



PILLARS OF COMMEMORATION. 9 

find them, as there is no regular fishery at present. 
The late Sir Robert Vaughan had obtained a 
sufficient number to appear at Court, with a 
button and loop to his hat, formed of these beau- 
tiful productions, about the year 1780. 



PILLARS OF COMMEMORATION. 

J. HE erection of a column or pillar, on the 
highest point of that ridge of hills, called Black- 
down, which separates the county of Somerset 
from that of Devon, in commemoration of the great 
victories obtained by the Duke of Wellington, 
is an inducement to look into history, to see how 
the nations of antiquity, particularly those of 
Greece and Rome, rewarded their heroes who 
signalized themselves by the performance of feats 
of military courage, valour, and skill. 

Among the Grecians it was usual to confer 
honours and rewards upon those who distinguished 
themselves in battle by valiant and courageous 
conduct. The ordinary rewards presented to con- 
querors in all the states of Greece, were crowns, 
which were sometimes inscribed with the person's 
name and actions that had merited them, as ap- 
pears from the inscription upoi! the crou^n present- 
ed by the Athenians to Conon. The Athenians 
sometimes honoured those who had performed 

c 



10 riLLARS OF COMMEMORATION. 

great actions with permission to raise pillars, or 
erect statues to the gods, with inscriptions declar- 
ing* their victories. Plutarch, however, supposes 
this to have been a grant rarely yielded to the 
greatest commanders. Cimon, who commanded 
the Athenian fleet against the Persians, became 
master of the city of Eion, in Thrace, and was, 
on account of his not imitating former com- 
manders, by standing upon the defensive, but 
repulsing the enemy, and carrying the war into 
their own country, highly respected and admired 
by his countrymen, who allowed him, in honour 
of his success over the enemy, to erect three 
pillars of stone or marble, each surmounted with 
the head of Mercury ; but though they bore an 
inscription, Cimon was not permitted to inscribe 
his name upon them. These pillars were consi- 
dered by his contemporaries as the highest honour 
which had then been conferred upon any com- 
mander. 

Various Pillars were erected at Rome in honour 
of great men, and to commemorate illustrious 
actions. Thus there were the Columna ^neay a 
pillar of Brass, on which aleague with the Latins 
was written. The Columna KostratOf tiie Rostral 
Column, erected in the Forum, in honour of 
Duillius, was adorned with figures of ships, and 
was constructed of white marble. This colunni 
is still remaining with its inscription. It was 
built in honour of a great victory gained by 



PILLARS OF COMMEMORATION. 11 

Duillius over the Carthaginian fleet near Lipara, 
in the first Punic war. Another Pillar was 
erected by M. Fulvius, the Consul, consisting of 
one stone of Numidian marble, nearly 20 feet 
high. 

But the most remarkable cokimns were those 
of Trajan and Antonmus Pius, 

Trajan's Pillar was erected in the middle of his 
Forum, and was composed of twenty-four great 
pieces of marble, but so curiously cemented as to 
seem but one. Its height is 128 feet. It is 
about 12 feet in diameter at the bottom, and 10 
at the top. It has in the inside 185 steps for as- 
cending to the top, and forty windows for the 
admission of light. The whole pillar is incrusted 
with marble, on which are represented the warlike 
exploits of that Emperor and his army, particularly 
in Dacia. On the top was a Colossal figure of 
Trajan, holding in his left hand a sceptre, and in 
his right a hollow globe of gold, in which his 
ashes were put, but Eutropius afl^rms that his 
ashes were put under the pillar. 

The pillar of Antoninus was erected after his 
death, by the Senate, in honour of his memory. 
It is 176 feet high, the stops of ascent 10(3, and 
the windows 5(). The sculpture and other orna- 
ments are much of the same kind with those of 
Trajan\s pillar, but the work is greatly inferior. 

Both these pillars are still standing, and justly 
reckoned among the most precious remains of 

c 2 



12 PILLARS OF COMMEMORATION. 

antiquity. Pope Sixtiis V. instead of the statues 
of the Emperors, caused the statue of St. Peter 
to be erected on Trajan's pillar, and of St. Paul 
on that of Antoninus. 

Pompey's Pillar, as it is commonly called^ 
in the city of Alexandria in Egypt, is equally 
celebrated with the two just mentioned. It is 
composed of red granite. The base is a square 
of about 15 feet on each side } this block of 
marble, 60 feet in circumference, rests on two 
layers of stone bound together with lead. The 
shaft and the upper member of the base are of 
one piece of 90 feet long, and nine in diameter. 
The capital is corinthian, with palm leaves, and 
not indented ; it is 9 feet high. The whole 
column is 114 feet in heighth. It is perfectly 
well polished, and only a little shivered on the 
eastern side. Nothing can equal the majesty of 
this column ; seen from a distance it overtops the 
town, and serves as a signal for vessels. Ap- 
proaching it nearer, it produces astonishment 
mixed with awe. The eye can never be tired 
with admiring the beauty of the capital, the 
length of the shaft, nor the extraordinary simpli- 
city of the pedestal. 

Among the first inhabitants of the world after 
the flood there were pillars erected sacred to the 
Pythonic god, Apollo, or the Sun. These pil- 
lars had curious hieroglyphical inscriptions ; they 
were very lofty and narrow in comparison of 



MASON THE POET. 13 

their length ; hence among the Greeks, who 
copied from the Egyptians, every thing gradually 
tapering to a point was stiled an Obelisk. 



MASON THE POET. 

J[ HE merit of this gentleman as a poet is well 
known. However he was not satisfied with the 
applause he received in that character ; he was 
desirous also of being esteemed a good musician 
and a good painter. In music he succeeded 
better than in painting. He performed decently 
on the harpsichord, and, by desire, I undertook, 
says Dr. Miller, in the History of Doncaster, to 
teach him the principles of composition ; but 
that I never could effect. Indeed, others before 
me had failed in the attempt, nevertheless he 
fancied himself qualified to compose ; for a short 
Anthem of his, beginning " Lord of all power 
and might,'* was performed at the Chapel Royal, 
of which only the melody was his own ; the bass 
was composed by another person. The same 
may be said of two more Anthems, sung in the 
Cathedral of York. In painting he never arrived 
even to a degree of mediocrity ; so true is 
Pope's observation : 

" One science only will one genius fit, 
" So vabt is art, so narrow human wit.'' 



li MASON THE POET. 

Fond, however, of being considered as a patron 
both of music and painting, he contributed to the 
advancement off several young men by his re- 
commendation : yet I never knev^ him patronize 
but one, in either of these arts, whom he did not 
desert afterwards, without his former favourite 
ever knowing in what he had offended him. 

" When young,'' says Dr. Miller, ** I was 
one of those he took under his protection. He 
permitted me to dedicate the music of some 
elegies to him, and also gave me pieces of his 
own writing to set to music, particularly the 
** Ode to Death" in Caractacus. However, at 
the end of a few years, I found myself involved 
in the disgrace of others, though I never knew 
the cause of my dismissal ; most probably our 
disgrace proceeded from the envy of some offici- 
ous tale-bearer. On recollection, I have often 
observed him listen attentively to these charac- 
ters ; and his favourite servant had it in his power 
to lead him which way he pleased, even to the 
changing a former acquaintance as easily as he 
would change his coat. Rather late in life he 
married Miss Sharman, of Hull, which was his 
native place. The reason he assigned for making 
her an offer of marriage was, that he had been a 
whole evenino^ in her company with others, and 
observed, that during all that time she never 
spoke a single word. This lady lived about a 
year after their marriage. She died at Bristol, 



MASON THE POET. 15 

where, ia the Cathedral, he placed a handsome 
monument to her memory, on which are inscribed 
some beautiful and miich-admired lines as an 
epitaph. During the short time this lady lived 
with him, he appeared more animated and agree- 
able in his conversation; but after her decease, 
his former phlegm returned, and he became 
silent, sullen, and reserved. 

" Though he had a good income, and was by 
no means extravagant, yet he frequently fancied 
himself poor, to that degree, that he once asked 
an acquaintance to lend him a hundred pounds, 
though at that very time he had considerable 
sums of money in the public funds, for which he 
neglected taking the interest. A great attach- 
ment appeared to exist between him and a very 
hospitable family in the neighbourhood of Don- 
caster, to whom he was nearly related, and with 
whom he used to pass some months in the 
summer. At length he fancied they expected to 
receive a good legacy at his decease, but resolv- 
ing to disappoint them, he did not even mention 
them in his will, but left the greater part of his 
property to a person who had formerly been his 
curate.'' 



The following Letter from Mason to Dr. Beattie^ is pre^ 
served in Sir William Forbes^ s Life of the latter : 

York, 17 th October, 1771. 

" In my late melancholy employment of re- 
viewing and arranging the papers, which dear 



16 MASON THE POET. 

Mr. Gray's friendship bequeathed to my care, I 
have found nine letters of yours, which I meant 
to have returned ere this, had I found a safe oppor- 
tunity by a private hand ; but as no such oppor- 
tunity has yet occurred, 1 take the liberty of 
troubling- you with this, to enquire how I may 
best convey them to you. I shall continue here 
till the 12th of next month, and hope in that 
interval to be favoured with a line from you upon 
this subject. 

" I should deprive myself of a very sincere 
gratification, if I finished this letter, with the 
business that occasions it. You must suffer me to 
thank you for the very high degree of poetical 
pleasure which tlie first book of your ** MinstreF' 
gave my imagination, and that equal degree of 
rational conviction which your " Essay on the 
Immutability of Truth" impressed on my under- 
standing. I will freely own to you, that the 
very idea of a Scotsman's attacking Mr. Hume, 
prejudiced me so much in favour of the latter 
piece, that I should have approved it, if, instead 
of a masterly, it had been only a moderate per- 
formance. 

** I shall be happy to know, that the remain- 
ing books of your " Minstrel" are likely to be 
published soon. The next best thing, after in- 
structing the world profitably, is to amuse it 
innocently. England has lost that man, (Mr. 
Gray) who, of all others in it, was best qualified 



BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. 17 

for both these purposes; but who, from early 
chag-rin and disappointment, had imbibed a dis- 
inclination to employ his talents beyond the 
sphere of self-satisfaction and improvement. 
May Scotland long possess, in you, a person both 
qualified and willing to exert his, for the pleasure 
and benefit of society." 



BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. 

J. HE Bishopric of Sodor and Man was first 
erected by Pope Gregory IV, about the year 840, 
and had for its diocese the Isle of Man and all 
the Hebrides or Western Islands of Scotland ; 
but when the Isle of Man became dependent 
upon the kingdom of England, the Western 
Islands withdrew themselves from the obedience 
of their Bishop, and had Bishops of their own, 
whom they entitled Episcopi Sodorenses, but com- 
monly Bishops of the Isles. The Prelates of the 
diocese of the Isles had three places of residence, 
namely, the Isle of Icolumkill, Man, and Bute ; 
and in ancient writs, are promiscuously styled 
Episcopi Manni(B et Insularum, Episcopi jEbu^ 
dariimy and Episcopi Sodorenses, which last title 
is still retained by the Bishops of the Isle of Man 3 
and the reason of this style is as follows : The 
Island of Ily, or 1, or lonah, was in former ages 

D 



18 BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. 

a place famous for sanctity and learning, and 
vepy early became the seat of a Bishop. This 
little Island was likewise denominated Icolum- 
kill, from St. Columba (the companion of St. 
Patrick) fonnding a monastery here in the sixth 
century, which was the mother of above one hun- 
dred other monasteries situated in different parts 
of Britain and Ireland. From the many learned 
men who came to study here, the Picts and Eng- 
lish Saxons of the North owe their conversion to 
Christianity. The Scots used long ago to com- 
mit the education of the presumptive heir of the 
crown to the care of the Bishops of this see ; and 
so holy was the Island of Icolumkill reckoned, 
that most of the Scottish monarchs w ere interred 
there. The Cathedral church was dedicated to 
our Saviour, for whom the Greek word is Soter, 
hence Soterensis^ now corrupted to Sodorensis; 
and it seems probable that this is the reason why 
the Danes called these Islands Sodoroe, The 
civil wars that raged among the Scots enabled 
the Danes and Norwegians to seize the Isle of 
Man ; and about the year 1097 or 1098, Donald 
Bane, an usurper, who then sat on the throne of 
Scotland, treacherously put the Norwegians in 
possession of the Western Isles, for the assistance 
they had given him. It is probable that these 
foreigners were the cause that tlie see was trans- 
lated entirely to the Isle of Man. They were 
at length however, expelled from all their usurped 



THE TABLE. 19 

dominions. During the great contest between 
the houses of Bruce and Baliol for the throne of 
Scotland, King Edward III, of England, made 
himself master of the Isle of Man, and it has re- 
mained an appendage of the crown of England 
ever since. The Lords of the Isle of Man sat up 
Bishops of their own, and the Scottish monarchs 
continued their Bishops of the Isles. The patron- 
age of the Bishopric of Man was given, together 
^Tith the Island, to the Stanleys, by King 
Edward IV. and they came by an heir-female to 
the Duke of Athol, who still keeps it -, and on 
a vacancy thereof, he nominates the intended 
Bishop to the King, who sends him to the Arch- 
bishop of York for consecration. This is the 
reason why the Bishop of Sodor and Man is not 
a Lord of Parliament, as none can have suffrage 
in the house of Peers who do not hold immediately 
of the King himself. 



THE TABLE 



1. HE form of a half-moon for a table is of very 
ancient date ; the Romans called it the Sigmciy 
from its resemblance to the Greek letter so called, 
which was in the time of the Roman Emperors 
like the letter C. Martial tells us this sort of 
table admitted but of seven persons, sepiem sigma 

d2 



20 CLOCKS, 

capit. And Lampridius, in his life of Heliogaba- 
lus, mentions it very frequently, and says it was 
for seven only ; he tells us the Emperor once in- 
vited eight, on purpose to raise a laugh against 
the person for whom there would be no seat. 
The same form of a table continued in after ages. 
The authors of the life of St. Martin say, that 
the Emperor Maximus invited him to a repast, 
where the table had the form of a sigma ; and 
again in the lower ages, Sidonius ApoUina- 
ris speaks of the same thing in the life of the 
Emperor Majorianus ; and it is likewise repre- 
sented in a manuscript of the fifth or sixth cen- 
tury. The seat itself was only a common bench 
or form ; the sigma was the principal piece of 
furniture, and most ornamented. In the time of 
Homer the guests sat round the table, as we do 
now, but afterwards some nations adopted the 
custom of a reclining position at their meals. 



CLOCKS. 

1 HE first Clock we know of in this Country 
was put up in an old tower of Westminster Hall, 
in the year 1288, and in 1202, there was one 
in the Cathedral of Canterbury. These were 
probably of foreign workmanship ; and it may 
be doubted, if there was at that time any person 



CLOCKS. 21 

\vho followed the business of making' clocks. 
There was, however, one very ing-enious artist, 
Richard of Wallingford, Abbot of St. Albans, 
who constructed a clock which represented the 
motions of the sun, moon, and stars, and the 
ebbing and flowing of the sea. That this won- 
derful piece of mechanism might be of permanent 
utility to his Abbey, he composed a book of 
directions for the management of it. And Leland 
who appears to have seen it, says, that in his 
opinion all Europe could not produce such 
another. 

There is a fine specimen of ancient Clock- 
making in Wells Cathedral. It is a clock con- 
structed by Peter Lightfoot, one of the monks of 
Glastonbury, about the year 1325, of complicated 
design and ingenious execution. It was origi- 
nally put up in that celebrated Monastery, and 
was placed in the south transept, and by means 
of a communication tolled the hours on the great 
bell of the central tower, whilst the quarters 
were struck by automata on two small bells in 
the transept. The dial plate shews the hours, 
and also the changes of the moon, the solar and 
other astronomical motions; on its summit there 
is an horizontal frame work, which exhibits by 
the aid of machinery, eight knights on horseback 
armed for a tournament, and pursuing each other 
with a rapid rotatory motion. At the Reforma- 
tion this clock was removed from Glastonbury 



22 ALDUS MANITIUS. 

Abbey to its present situation in Wells Cathe- 
dral. ^ 

The Clock in Exeter Cathedral was erected 
by Bishop Courtenay in the year 1480. It is on 
the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy and of a 
curious construction for the age in which it was 
put up. The earth is represented by a globe in 
the centre ; the sun by a flenr-de-lys ; and the 
moon by a ball painted half black and half white, 
which turns on its axis, and shews the different 
phases of that luminary. 



ALDUS MANUTIUS. 

[died 1516.] 

JLT would be difficult to say whether the exer- 
tions of any individual, however splendid his 
talents, or even the labours of any p^irticular 
association, or academy, however celebrated, 
ever shed so much lustre on the place of their 
residence as that which Venice derives from the 
reputation of a stranger, who voluntarily selected 
it for his abode. I allude to Aldus Manu- 
Tius. This extraordinary person combined the 
lights of the scholar, with the industry of the 
mechanic ; and to his labours, carried on with- 
out interruption till the conclusion of a long life, 
the world owes the first or principes editiones of 



ALDUS MANUTTUS. 23 

twenty eight Greek Classics. Among" these we 
find Pindar, ^schyhis, Sophocles, Euripides, 
Herodotus, Thucydides, Demosthenes, Plato, 
and Aristotle. Besides these, there are few 
ancient authors of any note, of whom this inde- 
fatig-able editor has not published editions of 
acknowledged accuracy, and as far as the means of 
the art of printings then in its infancy, permitted, 
of great beauty. In order to appreciate the merit 
of Aldus, we must consider the difficulties under 
which he must have laboured at a time when 
there were few public libraries ; when there was 
no regular communication between distant cities; 
when the price of manuscripts put them out of 
the reach of persons of ordinary incomes ; and 
when the existence of many since discovered, 
was utterly unknown. The man who could sur- 
mount these obstacles, and publish so many 
authors till then inedited ; who could find means 
and time to give new and more accurate editions 
of so many others already published, and accom- 
pany them all with prefaces mostly of his own 
composition ; who could extend his attention 
still farthei- and by his labours secure the fame, 
by immortalizing the compositions of the most 
distinguished scholars of his own age and country, 
must have been endowed in a very high degree, 
not only with industry and perseverance, but 
with judgment, learning, and discrimination. 
One virtue more, Aldus possessed in common 



24 BOTTLES OF SKIN. 

with many of the great literary characters of 
that period, I mean, a sincere and manly piety, 
a virtue which gives consistency, vigour, and 
permanency to every good quality, and never 
fails to communicate a certain grace and dignity 
to the whole character. 



BOTTLES OF SKIN. 

JL HE Ancients made use of bottles of skin to 
hold their wine, as is usual in many countries to 
this day. Thus Homer mentions wine being 
brought in a (joaCs skin. (U. II. iii. line 247. 
Odys. VI.line78, IX. line 196, 212) Herodotus 
(ii. 121,) mentions skins being filled with wine. 
AndMaundrell in his Travels to Jerusalem, speak- 
ing of the Greek Convent at Bellmount, near 
Tripoli, in Syria, says, *' The same person whom 
we saw officiating at the altar in his embroidered 
sacerdotal robe, brought us the next day on his 
own back, a kid, and a goat's skin of wine as a 
present from the Convent.'* 



ENGLISH SLAVE TRADE. 25 



ENGLISH SLAVE TRADE. 

xjL great article of exportation among the 
Anglo-Saxons was Slaves, in which kind of 
traffic, the Northumbrians in particular, were 
very famous, amongst whom this trade continued, 
according to William of Malmesbury, for some 
time after the conquest. The people of Bristol 
were also very much employed in the Slave 
Trade, which they pursued with such eagerness, 
that they frequently spared not their nearest re- 
lations ; but at length they were prevailed upon 
by the preaching and exhortation of Wulstan, 
Bishop of Worcester, who possessed that See at 
the time of the Conquest, to quit such a barba- 
rous and inhuman traffic. 

In the history of the Saxon period there is 
frequent mention of living money, in contradis- 
tinction to coins of gold, silver, &c. This liv- 
ing money consisted of slaves and cattle of all 
sorts, which according to the value fixed upon 
them by law, were equally current with gold or 
silver in the payment of debts. 

In Domesday Book it is said that in the 
Borough of Lewes, four-pence was to be paid to 
the Portreeve for every man sold within that 
borough. 

E 



26 OLIVER Cromwell's wife. 

The Monks were forbid by an ancient Canon 
to manumit their slaves, and this unhappy race 
of men seems to have been longer perpetuated on 
the estates of the Monasteries than elsewhere, for 
in the survey of Glastonbury Abbey taken after 
the dissolution, there is mention of "271 bond- 
men, whose bodies and goods were at the King's 
Highnesses pleasure." 



OLIVER CROMWELL'S WIFE. 

JL HE two following notable instances of this 
Lady's niggardliness are taken from a very scarce 
little book intitled '* The Court and Kitchen of 
Elizabeth Cromwell," &c. printed in 1664. 

<* The first, was the very next summer after 
Oliver's coming" to the Protectorate in 1651. In 
June, at the very first season of green pease, 
where a poor country woman living some where 
about London, having a very early but small 
quantity in her garden, was advised to gather them 
and carry them to the Lady Protectress; her 
counsellors conceiving she would be very liberal 
in her reward, they being the first of that year ; 
accordingly the poor woman came to the Strand ; 
aud having her pease amounting to a peck and a 
h(dr, in a basket, a cook by the Savoi/ as she 



OLIVER Cromwell's wife. 27 

passed, either seeing* or guessing' at them, demand- 
ed the price, and upon her silence offered her an 
ang-el (a coin so called) for them, but the woman 
expecting some greater matter, went on her w^ay 
to Whitehall, where after much ado, she was 
directed to her chamber, and one of her maids 
came out, and understanding it was a present and 
a rarity, carried it in to the Protectress, who out 
of her princely munificence sent her a crown, 
which the maid toki into her hand ; the woman 
seeing this baseness, and the frustration of hey 
hopes, and remembering withal what the cook 
had proffered her, threw hack the money into ths 
maid's hands, and desired her to fetch her back 
her pease, for that she was offered five shillings 
more for them before she brought them thither^ 
and could go fetch it presently ; and so half slight- 
ingly and half ashamedly, this great lady returned 
her present, putting it off with a censure upon 
the unsatisfactory daintiness of luxurious and 
prodigal epicurism. The very same pease were 
afterwards sold by the woman to the said cook, 
who is yet alive (that is in 1G64) to justify the 
truth of this relation. 

" The other is of a later date. Upon Oliver's 
rupture with the Spaniards, the commodities of 
Spain grew very scarce, and the prices of 
them raised by such as could procure them under- 
hand. Among the rest of these goods, the fruits 
of the growtli of that country were very rare 

E 2 



28 SHAKESPEARE. 

and dear, especially oranges and lemons. One 
day as the Protector was private at dinner he 
called for an orange to a loin of veal, to which 
he used no other sance, and urofinix the same com- 
mand, was answered by his wife, that Oranges 
were oranges now ; that crab oranges would cost 
a groat, and for her part she never intended to 
give it ; and it was presently whispered that sure 
her Highness was never the adviser of the Spanish 
war : and that his Highness would have done well 
to have consulted his digestion, before his lusty 
and inordinate appetite of dominion and riches 
in the West Indies.'' 



SHAKESPEARE, 



i HE following ingenious reasons are assigned 
by Mr. Charles Butler, in his " Memoirs of the 
English Catholics,'' as grounds for a belief that 
Shakespeare was a Roman Catholic. 

** May the Writer premise a suspicion, which 
from internal evidence, he has long entertained, 
that Shakespeare was a Roman Catholic. Not 
one of his works contains the slightest reflections 
on Popery, or any of its practices ; or any eulogy 
of the Reformation. His panegyric on Queen 
Elizabeth is cautiously expressed; whilst Queen 
Catherine is placed in a state of veneration ; and 



SHAKESPEARE. , 29 

nothing can exceed the skill with which Griffith 
draws the panegyric of Wolsey. The Ecclesi- 
astic is never presented by Shakespeare in a 
degrading" point of view. The jolly Monk, the 
irreg-ular Nun, never appear in his Drama. Is it 
not natural to suppose, that the topics, on which 
at that time, those who criminated Popery loved 
so much to dwell, must have often solicited his 
notice, and invited him to employ his muse upon 
them, as subjects likely to engage the favourable 
attention both of the Sovereign and the subject? 
Does not his abstinence from these justify a sus- 
picion, that a Popish feeling with-held him from 
them. Milton made the Gunpowder Conspiracy 
the theme of a regular Poem. Shakespeare is 
altogether silent on il,'^ 



The Editor of the Morning Chronicle has 
given a short comment on the above Para- 
graph : " We will only oppose" says he, " a 
single observation to Mr. Butler's suspicion. 
Shakespeare was buried at his own desire in a 
Protestant Church, with this rather curious In- 
scription, which we recommend to Mr. Butler's 
perusal : 

Good Friend for Jesu's sake forbear 
To dig the dust inclosed here. 
Blest be the man that spares these stones. 
And curst be he that moYCS my bones." 



so SHAKESPEARE. 

The Editor of the Morning Chronicle does^ 
not give his authority for stating that Shakespeare 
was buried hi/ his own desire in a Protestant 
Church. The poet, in his will, does not express 
any desire about being buried in any particular 
place, and being buried in a Protestant Church, 
neither proves one thing nor another respecting 
his religion. It is no proof that he was a Pro- 
testant because he was buried in a Protestant 
Church, even if it were clearly shewn that it was 
by his own desire ; neither is it any proof that 
he was not a Roman Catholic because he was 
buried in a Protestant Church. Let us ask the 
Editor of the M. C. where the Catholics of 
Shakespeare's time could bury their dead but in 
Protestant Churches, or in consecrated ground 
belonging to Protestant Churches ? 

The inscription which the Editor of the M. C. 
mentions to have been placed upon Shakespeare's 
tomb, certainly does not prove any more respect- 
ing his religion than does his being buried in a 
Protestant Church. It has been observed with 
a high degree of probability that the inscription 
in question alludes to the custom which was then 
in use of removing skeletons after a certain time, 
and depositing them in Charnel Houses. Similar 
execrations are found in many ancient Latin 
Epitaphs. 

It is one of tlie observations of Mr. Butler, in 
proof of his suspicion, that Shakespeare was a 



UNIVERSITY DEGREES. ol 

RoQian Catholic, that the poet has not eulogized 
the Reformation. In the speech (play of Henry 
Vlll. scene the last) which Archbishop Cran- 
mer makes at the christening* of the Princess 
Elizabeth, Shakespeare puts into the Prelate's 
mouth these prophetic words — 
'^ In her days 



'^ God shaU be truly known" . . , 
which appear evidently to infer that in the Roman 
Catholic times God was not truly known, but 
that the Reformation, so eminently promoted by 
Queen Elizabeth, had brought forth light and 
truth. Mr. Butler seems to have overlooked 
these lines, and the inference that may be 
drawn from them, namely, that Shakespeare was 
Qiot a Roman Catholic. 

The author of a Tragedy, recently published, 
entitled '* Moscow," says (p. 67.) that *' he has 
discovered that Shakespeare was a Free-Mason. 
Let every brother of the third degree, therefore 
SEARCH the works of the immortal bard, and he 
will find the truth of the above assertion.'* 



UNIVERSITY DEGREES. 

XT does not appear that there were any degrees 
in either the Greek or Roman academies ; the 
only distinction was that of masters and scholars. 



32 UNIVERSITY DEGREES. 

The first seminaries of learning among christians 
were the cathedral churches and monasteries, 
but in process of time the schools belonging to 
them were regulated, and men of learning 
opened others in places where they could find 
protection and encouragement. Hence the ori- 
gin of universities, which at first were merely a 
collection of those schools, to which Princes and 
great men gave liberal endowments, and granted 
particular immunities and privileges. Degrees 
were not conferred till the universities were in- 
corporated ; a circumstance extremely probable, 
when we recollect that all civil honours must be 
derived from the supreme magistrate. 

The most ancient degrees were those of Ba- 
chelor and Master of Arts. Before the existence 
of a certain statute, which obliged the theologists 
to be regents in arts previously to their ascending 
the chair of Doctor, they were only students, and 
bachelors, or master^ of divinity, without reading 
the arts. At that time the degrees in arts were 
lield in such estimation, as to be thought superior 
to that of doctor in any other faculty. 

The degree of Doctor was not known in 
England till the time of Henry 11. It after- 
wards became common, and was taken not only 
by Professors of Divinity, Law, and Medicine, 
but by those of Grammar, Music, Philosophy, 
Arts, &c. As the Doctors of those profes- 
sions, however, seldom obtained great honour or 



GUY CARLETON. 33 

riches, this degree decliaed and fell into neg- 
lect. That of Music is the only one which has 
survived. 



GUY CARLETON, 

LORD DORCHESTER. 



TT HEN General Wolfe was appointed to the 
Command of the Land Forces destined to act 
against Canada, in 1759, Mr. Pitt, then Secre- 
tary of State, told him, that as he could not give 
him so many troops as he wanted for the Expe- 
dition, he would make it up to him in the best 
manner he could, by allowing him the appoint- 
ment of all his Officers. Accordingly the 
General sent in a list, in which was the name of 
Lieutenant-Colonel Carleton, whom he had put 
down as Quarter-Master-General. This Officer, 
who had been Aide-de-Camp to the Duke of 
Cumberland during the campaign in Germany, 
in 1757, had unfortunately made himself obnox- 
ious to George the Second, by some unguarded 
expressions relating to the Hanoverian Troops, 
and which had by some officious person been re- 
ported to the King. Lord Ligonier, then Com- 
mander in Chief of the Forces, took General 
Wolfe's list to his Majesty for his approbation, 



M GUY CARLETON. 

when the King having looked over it, made some 
objections in pointed terms, to Colonel Carleton*s 
name, and refused to sign his commission. 
Lord Ligonier reported the King's objections 
and refusal to Mr Pitt, who immediately sent his 
Lordship a second time to his Majesty with no 
better success. Mr. Pitt then suo^-o^ested that his 
Lordship should go again, which he refused, 
on which Mr. Pitt told him, that unless he went 
to the King and got Colonel Carleton's commis- 
sion signed he should lose his place. Lord 
Ligonier then went a third time to the King, and 
represented to him the peculiar state of the ex- 
pedition, and that in order to make the General 
completely responsible for every part of his con- 
duct, it was necessary that the officers employed 
under him should be those who enjoyed his entire 
and perfect confidence, so that, if he did not suc- 
ceed, he might not accuse the Government at 
home with putting under him officers who, either 
by incapacity, want of energy, or inactivity, 
ishould thwart his commands, and thus paralyse 
the most skilful arrangements. The King list- 
ened to his Lordship's reasons with a favourable 
ear, and his resentment against Colonel Carleton, 
was so completely disarmed, that he immediately 
signed the commission under which that Officer 
accompanied General Wolfe as Quarter-Master- 
General of his army. 



FIGS. 35 



FIGS. 



JD IGS have from the earliest times been reck- 
oned among- the delights of the palate. 

Moses, in the Pentateuch, enumerates among* 
the praises of the promised land, (Deut. viii. 8.) 
that it was a '' Land of Fig Trees" 

The Athenians valued figs at least as highly as 
the Jews. Alexis (in the Deipnosophists) calls 
figs " Food for the Gods." Pausanias says that 
the Athenian, Phytalus, was rewarded by Ceres 
for his hospitality, with the gift of the first fig- 
tree. Some foreign guest, no doubt, transmitted 
to him the plant, which he introduced into Attica, 
It succeeded so well there, that Athenseus brings 
forward Lynceus and Antiphanes vaunting the 
figs of Attica as the best on the earth. Horapollo, 
or rather his commentator Bolzair, says that 
when the master of a house is going a journey he 
hangs out a broom of fig-boughs for good luck. 

By one of the laws of Solon all the products 
of the earth were forbidden to be exported from 
Athens ; under this law the exportation of figs 
was prohibited, and it is from this circumstance 
we have the word sycophant from the Greek ; 
those who violated this law were subject to a 
heavy penalty, and the informer against the 

f2 



SG FIGS. 

delinquents was called a sycophant from the ori- 
ginal word literally meaning- an ** exhibiter of 
figs," as thereby substantiating his charge. The 
name was afterward more extensively applied, 
and is now associated with the ideas of meanness, 
servility, and calumny. 

A taste for figs marked the progress of refine- 
ment in the Roman Empire. In Cato's time 
but six sorts of figs were known; in Pliny's 
twenty-nine. The sexual system of plants seems 
first to have been observed in the fig tree. Pliny 
in his Natural History alludes to this under the 
term caprification. 

In modern times the esteem for figs has been 
more widely diffused ; when Charles the 5th 
visited Holland in 1540, a Dutch merchant sent 
him, as the greatest delicacy which Zuricksee 
could offer, a plate of figs. The gracious Emperor 
dispelled for a moment the fogs of the climate 
by declaring, that he had never eaten figs in Spain 
with more pleasure. Carter praises the figs of 
Malaga ; Tournefort those of Marseilles ; Ray 
those of Italy -, Brydone those of Sicily -, Dumont 
those of Malta ; Browne those of Thessaly 3 
Pocock those of Mycone ; De la Mourtraye 
those of Tenedos and Mitylene ; Chandler those of 
Smyrna; Maillet those of Cairo; and Lady Mary 
Wortley Montague those of Tunis. What less 
can be inferred from this conspiring testimony 
than that wherever there is a ^g there is a feast? 



FRUITS. 37 

It remains for Jamaica, and the contiguous 
Islands, to acquire that celebrity for the growth 
of figs, which yet attaches to the Eastern Archi- 
pelago ; to learn to dry them as in the Levant, 
and to supply the desserts of the English tables. 



FRUITS, 

CULTIVATED AT ROME IN THE TIME OF 

PLINY, THAT ARE NOW GROWN 

IN OUR ENGLISH GARDENS. 

Apples. The Romans had twenty-two 

sorts of Apples. Sweet Apples (melimala) for 
eating, and others for cookery. They had one 
sort without kernels. 

[Eugene Aram, in his collections for a diction- 
ary of the Celtic language, says that the name of 
the Apple Tree is a corruption of *' Apollo's 
Tree." — ** And that this is its original, will be 
easily deducible from a little reflection on the 
proofs in support of it. The prizes in the sacred 
games were the Olive Crown, Apples, Parsley, 
and the Pine. Lucian, in his Book of Games, 
affirms that Apples were the reward in the Sacred 
Games of Apollo ; and Curtius asserts the same 
thing. It appears also that the Apple Tree was 
consecrated to Apollo before the Laurel ; for 
both Pindar and Callimachus observe that Apollo 



38 FRUITS. 

did not put on the Laurel until after his conquest 
of the Python, and that he appropriated it to 
himself on account of his passion for Daphne, to 
whom the laurel was sacred. The Victor's wreath 
at first was a bough with its apples hanging- upon 
it, sometimes with a branch of laurel ; and anti- 
quity united these together as the reward of the 
Victor in the Pythian games.] 

Apricots. Pliny says of the Apricot 

(Armeniaca) quce sola et odore commendantur. 
He arranges them among his plums. — Martial 
valued them but little, as appears by his epigram, 
xiii. 46. 

[The Apricot, we are told came originally from 
Armenia, whence its name Armeniaca* Wolfe, 
gardener to King Henry the 8th, first introduced 
Apricots into England. Tusser mentions the 
Apricot in his list of fruits cultivated here in 
1573.] 

Almonds — were abundant, both bitter and 
sweet. [The Almond was introduced into Eng- 
land in 1570 ; it is not, however, in Tusser's list 
of fruits cultivated herein 1573.] 

Cherries — were introduced into Rome in 
the year of the city 680, B. C. 73, and were 
carried thence to Britain 120 years after, A. D. 
48. The Romans had eight kinds, a red one, a 
black one, a kind so tender as scarce to bear any 
carriage, a hard fleshed one (duracina) like our 
bigarreau, a small one with a bitterish flavour 



FRUITS. 39 

(laurea) like our little wild black, also a dwarf 
one, the tree bearing* which did not exceed three 
feet in height. 

[Cherries are said to have come originally from 
Cerasus, a city of Pontus, from which Lucullas 
brought them into Italy, after the Mithridatic 
War. They so generally pleased at Rome, and 
were so easily propagated in all climates into 
which the Romans extended their arms, that 
within the space of a hundred years, they had 
become common. It has been erroneously sup- 
posed that Cherries were first introduced into 
this country by Richard Haynes, fruiterer to King 
Henry the eighth, who planted them at Teynham, 
in Kent, whence they had the name of Kentish 
cherries; but Lydgate who wrote his poem 
called *' Lickpenny" before the middle of the 
fifteenth century, or probably before the year 
1415, mentions them in the following lines, as 
being commonly sold at that time by the hawkers 
in the streets of London : 

'^ Hot pcscode oon began to cry, 

'^ Straberys rype, and cherreys in the ryse." 

Ryce, rice, or ris, properly means a long 
branch ; and the word is still used in that sense 
in the West of England. 

Dr. B alley n shews there were plenty of good 
native cherries at Ketteringham, near Norwich ; 
pears, called the Blackfriars, iu and about that 



40 FRUITS. 

city; and excellent grapes at Blaxhall in Suffolk, 
where he was rector from 1550 to 1554.] 

Chesnuts. — The Romans had six sorts, some 
more easily separated from the skin than others, 
and one with a red skin. They roasted them 
as we do. 

[The chesnut, castanea, is a native of the South 
of Europe, and is said to take its name from 
Castanea, a city of Thessaly, where anciently it 
grew in great plenty. Gerard says that in his 
time there were several woods of chesnuts in 
England, particularly one near Feversham, in 
Kent ; and Fitz- Stephen, in a description of 
London, written by him in Henry the second's 
time, speaks of a very noble forest which grew 
on the north side of it. This tree grows some- 
times to an amazing size. There is one at Lord 
Ducie's at Tortworth, in the county of Gloucester, 
which measures 19 yards in circumference, and 
is mentioned by Sir Robert Atkyns, in his His- 
tory of that County, as a famous tree in King 
John's time ; and by Mr. Evelyn in his Sylva, 
to have been so remarkable for its magnitude 
in the reign of King Stephen, as then to be 
called the great chesnut of Tortworth; from 
which it may be reasonably supposed to have 
been standing before the conquest. Lord Ducie 
had a drawing of it taken and engraved in 1772. 
Formerly a great part of London was built with 
chesnut and walnut timber. 



FRUITS. 41 

The Horse Chesnnt was brought from the 
northern parts of Asia into Europe, about the 
year 1550, and was sent to Vienna, about the 
year 1558. From Vienna it migrated into Italy 
and France : but it comes to us from the Levant 
immediately. Gerard in his Herbal, printed in 
1597, speaks of it only as a foreign Tree. In 
Johnson's edition of the same Work printed in 
1(383, it is said, " Horse Chesnut groweth in 
Italy, and in sundry places of the East Country; 
it is now growing with Mr. Tradescant at South 
Lambeth.** Parkinson says " our Christian 
World had first the knowledge of it from Con- 
stantinople." — The same Author places the 
Horse Chesnut in his Orchard, as a fruit tree 
between the Walnut and the Mulberry. How 
little it was then known, 1629, may be inferred 
from his saying not only that it is of a greater and 
more pleasant aspect, for the fair leaves, but also 
of a good use for the fruit, which is of a sweet 
taste, roasted and eaten as the ordinary sort. — 
This tree does not seem to have been so common 
a hundred years ago as it is now. Mr. Hough- 
ton (1700) mentions some at Sir William 
Ashhurst*s at Highgate, and especially at the 
Bishop of London's at Fulham. Those now 
standing at Chelsea College were then very 
young. There was also a very fine one in the 
Pest-house garden near Old-Street, and another 
not far from the Ice-house under the shadow of 
the Observatory in Greenwich Park. 



42 FRUITS, 

Figs. — The Romans had many sorts of figs, 
black and white, large and small ; one as large 
as a pear, another no larger than an olive. 

[The tig has been cultivated in England ever 
since 1562. It is omitted by Tasser in his list of 
fruits cultivated in our gardens. Cardinal Pole 
is said to have imported from Italy that tree, 
which is still growing in the garden of the Arch- 
bishop's palace at Lambeth. It is the oldest ^g 
tree that is known in this kingdom. In the Percy 
Household-book, the person who had the charge 
of providing for the consumption and use of the 
Earl of Northumberland's numerous family, was 
ordered to purchase four coppets of figs, for which 
he was to pay twenty pence for each coppet. 
This quantity was to serve for one year. 

Medlars. — The Romans had two kinds of 
medlars, the one larger, and the other smaller. 

Mulberries. — The Romans had two kinds 
of the black sort, a larger and a smaller. Pliny 
speaks also of a mulberry growing on a briar: 
Nascuutur et in ruhis, (1. xv. sect. 27) but whe- 
ther this means the raspberry, or the common 
blackberry, does not appear. 

[The mulberry, Morus, is a native of Persia, 
whence it was introduced into the southern parts 
of Europe, and is commonly cultivated in England, 
Germany, and other countries where the winters 
are not very severe. " We are informed," says 
Forsyth in his treatise on fruit trees, " that mul- 
berries were first introduced into this country in 



FRUITS. 4^ 

1596 ; but I have reason to believe that they 
were brought hither previous to that period, as 
many old trees are to be seen standing at this day 
about the sites of ancient abbeys and monaste- 
ries, from which it is at least probable that they 
had been introduced before the dissohition of 
religious houses. Four large mulberry trees are 
still standing on the site of an old kitchen garden, 
now part of the pleasure-ground, at Sion House, 
which, perhaps may have stood there ever since 
that house was a monastery. The first Duke of 
Northumberland has been heard to say, that these 
trees were above 300 years old. At the Priory 
near Stanmore, Middlesex, (the seat of the Mar- 
quis of Abercorn) there are also some ancient 
Mulberry trees. The Priory was formerly a 
religious house. 

Gerard in his description of the mulberry tree 
has the following curious paragraph : " Hexan- 
der in Athenaeus affirmeth, that the mulberry trees 
in his time did not bring forth fruit in twenty 
years together ; and that so great a plague of the 
gout reigned and raged so generally, as not only 
men, but boys, and women were troubled with 
that disease." 

Tusser, in his list of fruits cultivated in Eng- 
land in J 573 enumerates the Mulberry. — Gerard, 
who published his history of plants in 1597, 
says in that book, that Mulberry Trees thea 
grew in sundry gardens in England.] 

G 2 



44 FRUITS. 

NtJTS. — The Romans had Hazel Nuts and 
Fil herds. They roasted these Nuts. 

Pjears. — Of these the Romans had many 
sorts, both Summer and Winter Fruit, melting 
and hard ; they had more than thirty six kinds, 
some were called Libralia, We have our Pound 
Pear. 

[Pliny mentions twenty kinds of this fruit, and 
Virgil five or six. 

^lian describmg the most ancient food of 
several nations, reports that at Argos they fed 
chiefly upon Pears. 

Tusser, states that ** Pears of all sorts" were 
cultivated here in his time. 

The Arms of Warden Abbey, in Bedfordshire, 
as given by Tanner, are Argent, Three Pears, 
Or. — Quere, if these are the species called 
Wardens, or if they are peculiar to that part of 
Enofland. 

The Warden Pear is common in Yorkshire. 
Plums. — The Romans had a multiplicity of 
sorts (ingens turba prunorum) black, white, and 
variegated ; one sort was called asinia, from its 
cheapness ; another damascena ; this had much 
stone and little flesh : from Martiafs Epigram, 
xiii. 29, we may conclude that it was what we 
now call prunes. 

[The Plum is generally supposed to be a native 
of Asia, and the Damascene (Damson) to take 
its name from Damascus, a city of Syria. 



FRUITS. 45 

Tusser enumerates in his list of fruits ** Grene 
or Grass Plums, and Peer Plums, black and 
yellow. 

Lord Cromwell introduced the Perdrigon 
Plum in the Reign of Henry the seventh.] 

Quinces. — The Romans had three sorts, one 
was called Chrysomela, from its yellow flesh. 
They boiled them with honey as we make mar- 
malade. See Martial, xiii. 24. 

[The Quince is called Cydonia, from Cydon, a 
town of Crete, famous for this fruit. — Tusser 
mentions it among his fruit-trees, and Gerard 
says it was cultivated here in his time.] 

Services. — They had the Apple-shaped, 
the Pear-shaped, and a small kind, probably the 
same that we gather wild, the Azarole. 

[There are three sorts of the Service Tree cul- 
tivated in England, namely the cultivated Ser- 
vice ; the Wild Service or Mountain Ash ; and 
the Maple leaved Service. The first is a native 
of the warmer climes of Europe ; and the other 
two grow wild in different parts of England.] 

Strawberries. — The Romans had Straw- 
berries, but do not appear to have prized them. 
The climate is too warm to produce this fruit in 
perfection unless in the hills. 

[Tusser enumerates Strawberries, red and 
white, as being cultivated when he wrote.] 

Vines. — The Romans had a multiplicity of 
Vines, both thick-skinned, (duracina,) and thin- 



46 , FRUITS. 

skinned : one Vine growing" at Rome produced 
12 Amphorae of juice, equal to 84 gallons. They 
had round-berried, and long-berried sorts, one 
so long that it was called dactilydes, the grapes 
being like the fingers on the hand. Martial 
(xiii. 22.) speaks favourably of the hard-skinned 
grape for eating. 

[In Domesday Book, (1. p. 8. col 1.) there are 
said to be in the Bishop of Bayeux's Manor of 
Chert, in the county of Kent, three arpents of 
Vineyard, and in the Manor of Leeds (1. p. 7. 
col. 4.) belonging to the same Bishop, two Ar- 
pents of Vineyard. 

In several Charters in the " Registrum RofFen- 
sis" mention is made of the Vineyard belonging 
to the Monks of Rochester, wherein grew great 
quantities of grapes ; and which is also, in much 
later days, said by Worlidge, to have produced 
excellent wines. Bishop llamon presented some 
of the wine and grapes of bis own growth, at 
Hailing, near Rochester, to Edward the second, 
when at Bockinfold \ and in some old leases of 
the bishoprick, mention has been found made, of 
considerable quantities of Blackberries being 
delivered to the Bishop of Rochester, by sundry 
of his Tenants, for the purpose of colouring the 
wine growing in his Vineyard. This gives us 
some idea of what sort the wine was, and also 
deserves well to be compared with that ancient 
usage of making wines in this country, the 



FRUITS. 47 

remembrance whereof is preserved by means of 
some records of the reign of Henry the third ; 
amongst which are two precepts, the one (Claus, 
An. 34. Hen. III.) to the keepers of the king's 
wines at York, to deliver out to one Robert (de 
Monte Pessulano) such wines, and as much as he 
pleased to make ybr the king's use, against the feast 
of Christmas, ( Claret) such drink, as he used to 
make in preceding years. The first record says, 
ad potus regis pretiosos delicatos inde faciendos. 
The second says, ad Claretum indefaciend, — Ad 
opus regis sicut annis preteritis facere consuevit» 
And both may be seen at length in Walpole's 
Anecdotes of Painting, vol. i. p. 11. Perhaps it 
may not be undeserving notice, that even to the 
beginning of the eighteenth Century, almost all 
red wine was, in this country, called Claret. 

Honey and Mead, constituted a part of the 
mixture of the royal Norman Claret, and for 
several ag-es Claret was considered as belonging 
to the Materia Medica; and formed a part of the 
old English Apothecaries store of Medicines, 
preserved in white glazed earthern pitchers, with 
labelled inscriptions burnt in large blue letters in 
the ware ; several of which are still preserved. 

Several other Monasteries and Abbeys, had 
remarkable Vineyards, as well as Rochester; 
particularly that of St. Edmund's Bury ; that at 
Ely ; that at Peterborough ; and even that at 
Darley Abbey, in Derbyshire ; And indeed most 



i 

I 



48 FRUITS. 

of the original Vineyards mentioned are found to 
have belonged to Abbeys. It is a curious cir- 
cumstance, and elucidating the prices of the age, 
that in the time of Henry the third, a Dolium, 
or cask of the best wine, sold for forty shilling's, 
and sometimes even for twenty. 

For an enlarged account of Vineyards in Eng- 
land see Archseologia, vol. i. p. 321. ; and vol. iii. 
p. 53. and 67.] 

Walnuts. — The Romans had soft shelled, 
and hard shelled, as we have. In the golden age, 
when men lived upon acorns, the gods lived 
upon Walnuts, hence the name JnglanSy that is 
Jovis glans.^^ 



As a matter of curiosity, it has been deemed 
Expedient, to add a list of the fruits cultivated in 
our English Gardens in the year 1573. This list 
is taken from Tusser's Five hundred points of good 
Hiishandrg, 

Thomas Tusser, who had received a liberal 
education at Eton school, and at Trinity hall, 
Cambridge, lived many years as a farmer in 
Suffolk and Norfolk. He afterwards removed 
to London, where he published in 1557, the first 

* This article is taken from the first volume of the Tran- 
sactions of the Horticultural Society, and was communicated 
by the Right Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. — The additioui, 
within brackets, arc by the Editor. 



FRUITS. 49 

edition of his work, under the title of *« One hun- 
dred points of good husbandry.'* 

In his fourth edition, from which this list is 
taken, he first introduced the subject of Garden- 
ing", and has given us not only a list of the fruits, 
but also of ail the plants then cultivated in our 
gardens, either for pleasure or profit, under the 
following heads : — 

" Seedes and herbes for the kychen, herbes and 
roots for sallets and sauce, herbes and rootes to 
boyle or to butter, strewing herbes of all sorts, 
herbes, branches, and flowers for windowes and 
pots, herbs to still in summer, necessarie herbes 
to grow in the gardens for physick not reherst 
before.'' 

This list consists of more than 150 species 
besides the following fruits : — 

Apple Trees of all sorts — Apricots 

Barberries — Bullass, black and white 

Cherries, red and black — Chesnuts — Cornet 
Plums* 

Damsons, white and black 

Filberds, red and white 

Gooseberries — Grapes, white and red — Green 
or Grass Plums. 

Hurtle Berries.| 

* Probably the fruit of Cornus Mascula, commonly called 
Cornelian Cherry. 

+ Ilitrtleberries^ the fruit of Vaccinium vitis idea, though 
no longer cultivated in our gardens, are still esteemed and 

II 



50 ~ FRUITS. 

Medlars or Merles — Mulberries. 

Peaches, white and red* — Pears of all sorts 
Pear Plums, black and yellow. 

Quince Trees. 

Rasps — Raisins.f 

Snaall Nuts — Strawberries, red and white — 
Service Trees. 

Wardons, white and red — Walnuts — Wheat 
Plums. 



served up at the tables of opulent people in the counties that 
produce them naturally. They are every year brought to 
London from the rocky country, near Leath Tower in 
Surrey, where they meet with so ready a sale among the 
middle classes of the people, that the richer classes scarcely 
know that they are to be bought. — They also grow very 
plentifully on some of the hills and heaths in the counties of 
Somerset and Devon. 

* The Yellow fleshed Peachy now uncommon in our 
gardens, but which was frequent 40 years ago, under the 
name of the Orange Peach, was called by our ancestors 
MelicotoH, 

+ By Raisins it is probable that Currants are meant ; the 
imported fruit of that name of which we make puddings and 
pies was- called by our ancestors Raisin de Corance. — In the 
Percy Household Book it is said that 200 pounds of Raisins 
de Corance should be purchased for the use of the Earl of 
Northumberland's family, which were to serve one year. 



PEACOCKS. 51 



PEACOCKS. 



J.NDIA, says Mr. Pennant, gave us Peacocks, 
and we are assured by Knox, in his History of 
Ceylon, that they are still found in the wild state, 
in vast flocks, in that island and in Java. So 
beautiful a bird could not be permitted to be a 
stranger in the more distant parts ; for so early 
as the days of Solomon (1 Kings, x. 22.) we 
find among the articles imported in his Tarshish 
navies, Apes and Peacocks. A monarch so con- 
versant in all branches of natural history, would 
certainly not neglect furnishing his officers with 
instructions for collecting every curi -ity 'ii the 
country to which they made voyages, which 
gave him a knowledge that distinguished him 
from all the princes of his time. ^Elian relates 
that they were brought into Greece from some 
barbarous country, and that they were held in 
such hiofh estimation, that a male and female 
were valued at Athens at 1000 drachm(B, or c£32. 
6s. lOcf. Their next step might be to Samos ; 
where they were preserved about the temple of 
Juno, being the birds sacred to that goddess ; and 
Gellius in his Nodes AlliccB commends the ex- 
cellency of the Samian Peacocks. It is therefore 
probable that they were brought there originally 
for the purposes of superstition, and afterwards 

H 2 



52 ANCIENT LIBRARIES. 

cultivated for the uses of luxury. We are also 
told, when Alexander was in India, he found 
vast numbers of wild ones on the banks of the 
Hyarotis, and was so struck with their beauty, 
as to appoint a severe punishment on any person 
that killed them. 

Peacocks' crests, in ancient times were among 
the ornaments of the kings of England. Er- 
nald de Aclent (Acland) paid a fine to king John 
in a hundred and forty palfries, with sackbuts, 
lorainSf gilt spurs and peacock's crests, such as 
would be for his credit. — Some of our regiments 
of cavalry bear on their helmets, at present, the 
figure of a peacock. 



ANCIENT LIBRARIES. 

ItJLANY events have contributed to deprive us 
of a great part of the literary treasures of anti- 
quity. A very fatal blow was given to literature 
by the destruction of the Phoenician temples and 
the Egpytian colleges, when those kingdoms and 
the countries adjacent, were conquered by the 
Persians, about 350 years before Christ. The 
Persians had a great dislike to the religion of 
the Phoenicians and the Egyptians, and this was 
one reason for destroying their books, of which 
Euscbius says they had a great number. 



ANCIENT LIBRARIES. 53 

The first celebrated library of antiquity 
was at Alexandria, and called from thence the 
Alexandrian library ; it owed its foundation to 
Ptolemy Soter, king* of Egypt, though his Son 
Ptolemy Philadelphus enjoys the reputation of 
being its founder. This was about 284 years 
before the Christian aera. 

The palace of Ptolemy Philadelphus was the 
asylum of learned men whom he admired and 
patronized. He paid particular attention to 
Euclid, Theocritus, Callimachus, and Lycophron, 
and by increasing the library, of which his father 
had laid the foundation, he shewed his taste for 
learning and wish to encourage genius. This 
celebrated library at his death contained 200,000 
volumes of the best and choicest books, and it 
was afterwards increased to 700,(jOO volumes. 
The method adopted for making this collec- 
tion was the seizing of all the books that were 
brought by the Greeks or other foreigners into 
Egypt, and sending them to Ptolemy, who 
had them transcribed by persons employed for 
that purpose. The transcripts were then deli- 
vered to the proprietors, and the originals laid 
up in the library. Ptolemy Euergetes, for 
instance, borrowed of the Athenians the works 
of Sophocles, Euripides, and ^schylus, and only 
returned them the copies, which he caused to be 
transcribed in as beautiful a manner as possible ; 
the originals he retained for his own library, 



54 ANCIENT LIBRARIES. 

presenting" the Athenians with fifteen talents for 
the exchange, that is, with upwards of cfSjOOO 
sterling. As the Alexandrian academy was at 
first in the quarter of the city called Bruchion, 
the library was placed there, but when the 
number of books amounted to 400,000 volumes, 
another library within the Serapeum was erected, 
by way of supplement to it, and on that account 
called the daughter of the former. The books 
lodged in the Serapeum increased to the number 
of 300,000, and these two made up the number 
of 700,000 volumes, of which the royal libraries 
of the Ptolemys were said to consist. 

In the war which Julias Caesar waged with 
the inhabitants of Alexandria, the library of 
Bruchion was accidentally, but unfortunately, 
burned ; but the library in the Serapeum still 
remained. The whole was magnificently repaired 
by Cleopatra, who deposited there the 200,000 
volumes, forming the library of the kings of 
Pergamus, with which she had been presented 
by Antony. These, and others added to them 
from time to time, rendered the new library of 
Alexandria more numerous and considerable than 
the former, and though it was plundered more 
than once during the revolutions which happened 
in the Roman empire, yet it was as frequently 
supplied M'ith the same number of books, and 
continued for many ages to be of great fame and 



ANCIENT LIBRARIES. 55 

wse, until it was burnt by the Saracens, in the 
year 642 of the Christian eera. 

There was a building adjoining* to this 
library, called the Museum, for the accommoda- 
tion of a college or society of learned men, who 
were supported there at the public expense, and 
where there were covered walks and seats where 
they might carry on disputations. 

The next library of antiquity was that founded 
at Pergamus, by Eumenes, and considerably in- 
creased by the literary taste of his wealthy and 
learned successors, at whose court merit and 
virtue were always sure of finding an honorable 
patronage. This library which consisted of 
200,000 volumes, was given by Antony to 
Cleopatra, as has been already mentioned. — 
Parchment was first invented and made use of 
at Pergamus to transcribe books upon, as 
Ptolemy had forbidden the exportation of Papy- 
rus from Egypt, in order to prevent Eumenes 
from making a library as valuable and choice 
as that of Alexandria. 

The first public library at Rome, and in the 
world, as Pliny observes, was erected by Asinius 
Pollio, in the Atrium of the Temple of Liberty 
on Mount Aventine. Augustus founded a 
Greek and Latin library in the Temple of 
Apollo on the Palatine Hill, and another in the 
name of his sister Octavia, adjoining to the 
Theatre of Marcellus. 



56 ANCIENT LIBRARIES. 

Among" the ancient libraries that of Luculhis; 
is mentioned by Plutarch in terms of the highest 
praise. The number of volumes was immense, 
and they were written in elegant hands. The 
use he made of them was still more honorable 
to him than the possession of so much literary 
treasure. The library of LucuUus was open to 
all ; the Greeks who were at Rome repaired 
with pleasure to his galleries and porticos, as to 
the retreat of the muses, and there spent whole 
days in conversation upon subjects of literature, 
delighted to retire to such a scene from other 
pursuits. LucuUus himself, who was a perfect 
master of the Greek language often joined and 
conferred with these learned men in their walks. 

There were several other libraries at Rome, 
the chief of which was the Ulpian library, insti- 
tuted by Trajan, which Dioclesian annexed as an 
ornament to his baths. One of the most elegant 
was that of Serenus Samonicus, preceptor of 
the Emperor Gordian. It is said to have con- 
tained not less than 60,000 volumes, and that the 
room in which they were deposited was paved 
with gilded marble. The walls were ornamented 
with glass and ivory ; and the shelves, cases, 
presses, and desks, made of ebony and silver. 
There were libraries in the capital, in the 
Temple of Peace, and in the house of Tiberius. 
Many •)riva e persons had good libraries parti- 
cularly in their country villas. The Rqmaa 



ANCIENT LIBRARIES. 57 

libraries were in general adorned with statues 
and pictures, particularly of ing-enious and 
learned men. 

Learning- and the arts received a fatal blow by 
the destruction of the heathen temples, in the 
reign of Constantine. The devastations then 
committed, are depicted in the strongest and 
most lively colours by Mr. Gibbon, in his History 
of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 

Many valuable libraries perished by the Bar- 
barians of the north, who invaded Italy in the 
fourth and fifth centuries. By these rude hands 
perished the library of Perseus, king of Macedon, 
which Paulus iEmilius brought to Rome with 
its captive owner ; as did also that noble library, 
just mentioned, established for the use of the 
public by Asinius Pollio, which was collected 
from the spoils of all the enemies he had subdued, 
and was much enriched by him at a great ex- 
pense. The libraries of Cicero and Lucullns 
met with the same fate, and those of Julius 
Caesar, of Augustus, Vespasian, and Trajan also 
perished, together with that of the Emperor 
Gordian. 



58 KING CHARLES THE FIRST. 



KING CHARLES THE FIRST. 

Jl he Journey of Prince Charles (afterwards 
Charles the First) and the Duke of Buci^ingham 
to Spain, was considered at the time to be such a 
piece of knight-errantry as scarcely any age 
could parallel. Spanheim in his history of 
Louisa- Juliana, Electress Palatine, naother of 
the king" of Bohemia, says " that never Prince 
was more obliged to a sister, than king Charles I. 
was to the queen of Bohemia; since it was only 
the consideration of her and her children, who 
were then the next heirs after him to the Crown 
of England, that prevailed with the Court of 
Spain to permit him ever to see England again. 

Charles the First, though of abstemious habits 
kept a splendid and hospitable table, at the 
beginning of his reign. Of this trait in his cha- 
racter, hitherto unnoticed, the following account 
affords a sufficient proof. 

There were daily in his court eighty six tables, 
well furnished each meal, whereof the king's table 
had twenty-eight dishes ; the queen's twenty- 
four ; four other tables sixteen dishes each ; 
three other ten dishes each ; twelve other had 
seven dishes each ; seventeen other tables had 
each of the<u fi\Q dishes ; three other had four 
each; thirty-two other tables had each three 



KING CHARLES THE FIRST. ^ 

dishes ; and thirteen other had each two dishes ; 
in all about five hundred dishes each meal, with 
bread, beer, wine, and all other things necessary. 
All which was provided, mostly by the several 
purveyors, who, by commission, leg-ally and re- 
gularly authorized, did receive those provisions 
at a moderate price, such as had been formerly 
agreed upon in the several counties of England, 
which price, (by reason of the value ot money 
much altered) was become low, yet a very in- 
considerable burthen to the kingdom in general, 
but thereby was greatly supported the royal 
dignity in the eyes of strangers as well as subjects. 
The English nobility and gentry, according to 
the king's example, were excited to keep a pro- 
portionable hospitality in their several country 
mansions, the husbandmen encouraged to breed 
cattle, all tradesmen to a cheerful industry ; and 
there was then a free circulation of money through- 
out the whole body of the kingdom. There was 
spent yearly in the king's house of gross meat 
fifteen hundred oxen, seven thousand sheep, twelve 
hundred veals, three hundred porkers, four hun- 
dred storks or young beefs, six thousand eight 
hundred lambs, three hundred flitches of bacon, 
and twenty-six hams ; also one hundred and 
forty dozen of geese, two hundred and fifty dozen 
of capons, four hundred and seventy dozen of 
hens, seven hundred and fifty dozen of pullets, 
one thousand four hundred and seventy dozen of 

I 2 



00 THE FAIR GERALDINE AND THE 

chickens ; for bread three thousand six hundred 
bushels of wheat : and for drink six hundred 
tuns of wine, and one thousand seven hundred 
tuns of beer ; moreover of butter forty si v thou- 
sand six hundred and forty pounds, together 
with fish and fowl, venison, fruit and spice pro- 
portionably^ 



THE FAIR GERALDINE AND THE 
EARL OF SURREY. 

J. HE " Fair Geraldine'' the general object of 
Lord Surrey's empassioned sonnets, is commonly 
said to have lived at Florence, and to have been 
of the family of the Geraldi, of that city. This 
is however, a misapprehension of an expression 
in one of our poet's Odes, and of a passage in 
Drayton's Heroic Epistles. This lady was Eli- 
zabeth, third daughter of Gerald Fitzgerald, ninth 
Earl of Kildare. She appears to have received 
her education at Hunsdon House, with the 
Princesses Mary and Elizabeth. It was here she 
was first seen by the Earl of Surrey, and she 
immediately became the object of his fervent but 
fruitless devotion. She was married first to Sir 
Anthony Rrowne, Lord Chief Justice of the Com- 
mon Pleas, and secondly to Edward Clinton, Earl 
vi Lincoln, surviving by many years her noble and 



EARL OF SURREY. 61 

unfortunate admirer. There is a Portrait of the 
"Fair Geraldine" in the Woburn collection. 

It is not precisely known at what period the 
Earl of Surrey began his travels. They have 
the air of a romance. He made the tour of 
Europe in the true spirit of chivalry, and with 
the ideas of an Amadis ; he proclaimed the unpa- 
ralleled charms of his Mistress, and prepared to 
defend the cause of her beauty with the weapons 
of Knig-ht-errantry ; nor was this adventurous 
journey performed without the intervention of an 
enchanter. The first city in Italy which he pro- 
posed to visit was Florence, the capital of Tus- 
cany, and the original seat of the ancestors of his 
Geraldine. 

In his way thither he passed a few days at the 
Emperor's court; where he became acquainted 
with Cornelius x4.grippa, a celebrated adept 
in natural magic. This visionary Philosopher 
shewed our hero in a mirror of glass, a represen- 
tation of Geraldine, reclining on a couch, sick, 
and reading one of his most tender sonnets by a 
waxen taper. His imagination, which wanted 
not the flattering representations and artificial 
incentives of illusion, was heated anew by this 
interesting and affecting spectacle. Inflamed 
with every enthusiasm of the n)ost romantic pas- 
sion, he hastened to Florence ; and on his arrival, 
immediately published a defiance against any 
person who could handle a lance and was in love, 



62 THE FAIR GER4LDINE AND THE 

whether Christian, Jew, Turk, Saracen, or Canni- 
bal, who should presume to dispute the superiority 
of Geraldine's beauty. As the lady was pre- 
tended to be of Tuscan extraction, the pride of 
the Florentines was flattered on this occasion ; 
and the Grand Duke of Tuscany permitted a 
general and unmolested ingress into his dominions 
of the combatants of all countries, until this im- 
portant trial shonld be decided. The challenge 
was accepted, and the Earl proved victorious. 
The shield which was presented to him by the 
Duke of Tuscany before the tournament began, 
is exhibited in Vertue's valuable print of the 
Arundel family, and was actually in the possession 
of one of the late Dukes of Norfolk. 

These heroic vanities did not, however, so 
totally engross the time which the Earl of Surrey 
spent in Italy, as to alienate his mind from 
letters ; he studied with the greatest success a 
critical knowledge of the Italian tongue ; and 
that he might give new lustre to the name of 
Geraldine, attained a just taste for the peculiar 
graces of the Italian poetry. 

He was recalled to England for some idle 
reason by the king, much sooner thon he ex- 
pected ; and he returned home the most elegant 
traveller, the most polite lover, the most learned 
nobleman, and the most accomplished gentleman 
of his age. Dexterity in tilting and graceful- 
ness in managing a horse under arms, were 



EARL OF SURREY. 63 

excellencies now viewed with a critical eye, and 
practised with a high degree of emulation. In 
1540 at a tournament held in the presence of 
the Court at Westminster, and in which some of 
the principal nobility were engaged, Surrey was 
distinofuished above the rest for his address in the 
use and exercise of arms. 

But all these accomplishments, and the popu- 
larity that attended them, laid the foundation of 
a fatal death for this illustrious nobleman. They 
excited the jealousy of his capricious monarch 
Henry VIII. Lord Or ford says "The unwield}'^ 
king growing distempered and froward, and ap- 
prehensive for the tranquillity of his boy -succes- 
sor, easily conceived or admitted jealousies 
infused into him by the Earl of Hertford and the 
Protestant party, though one of the last acts of 
his fickle life was to found a convent." Treason 
was therefore objected to the Earl of Surrey 
upon the most frivolous pretences ; of which the 
principal was, his quartering the arms of Edward 
the Confessor with those of Howard, though even 
this insignificant fact had been justified by the 
practice of his family, and the sanction of the 
heralds. He was arraigned in the Guildhall, 
London, found guilty by a jury, and judgment 
of death being given, he was beheaded on 
Tower Hill, in January, 1'547. 

The Earl of Surrey was professedly a man of 
gallantry and pleasure, possessing a highly 



64 THE FAIR GERAIiDINE AND THE 

cultiv'cited mind, and excelling in all the polite and 
elegant accomplishments of the age in which he 
lived. The flattery which has been bestowed 
upon his character by Poets, Heralds, and Gene- 
alogists, has not ceased to flow from his death to 
the present hour. A recent genealogical writer 
has been superlatively lavish of his panegyrics 
upon the excellencies and even upon the morals 
of the gallant Earl. There is, however, one 
extraordinary circumstance in the life of this 
nobleman which has been entirely overlooked by 
all his encomiasts. This is, that while his father 
urged him to connect himself in marriage with 
one lady ; while the king was jealous of his 
designs upon a second ; and while lie himself as 
may be collected from his poem " To a Lady 
who refused to dance with him," made proposals 
of marriage to a third, he was during all this time 
married to the lady Frances,* daughter of John 
de Vere, Earl of Oxford, by whom he had five 
children, namely, two sons and three daughters. 
The sons were Thomas, afterwards fourth Duke 
of Norfolk, and Henry, created Earl of North- 
ampton, by king James the First. To this lady 
the Earl of Surrey was united at the age of 
fifteen, and several years after his premature 
death, we find her bearing the title of Countess of 

* There is a portrait of this lady among the Holbein 
Heads, published by Mr. Chamberlaine. 



EARL OF SURREY. 66 

Surrey, and possessing* the guardianship of his 
children, therefore it is apparent they were never 
divorced. Can it be supposed that the example 
of a lustful king- had instructed his courtiers, 
anaong- their other accomplishments, to find pre- 
texts for the dissolution of the marriage tie, when- 
ever interest or their g'uilty passions prompted 
them to such baseness ? Yet this is the man 
whose moral, as well as poetical and literary 
character, we are told " it is delig-htful to con- 
template.*' 

The Earl of Surrey had one sister, Mary, 
who was married to Henry Fitzroy, Duke of 
Richmond and Somerset, natural son of Henry 
yill. who died in 1536 at the ag^e of seven- 
teen without issue. There is a most beautiful 
portrait of this lady in Chamberlaine's collection 
of the Holbein Heads. Mr. Lodge exclaims 
pathetically *' Would that her story had died with 
her ; and that we might have been at liberty to 
fancy the character of so fair a creature as fair as 
her countenance. But the truth must be told. 
At the iniquitous trial of her brother in lo47, 
this lady was called on as a witness and brought 
forward a body of evidence against him so 
keenly pointed, and so full of secrets, which 
from their nature must have been voluntarily 
disclosed by her, that we cannot but suspect her 
conduct of a degree of rancour, unpardonable in 
any case, but in this unnatural.*' 

K 



<36 JEWS IN ENGLAND. 



JEWS IN ENGLAND. 

T? ILLIAM the Conqueror permitted g-reat 
numbers of Jews to come over from Rouen, 
and to settle in England in the last year of his 
reign. Their number soon increased, and they 
spread themselves throughout most of the cities 
and capital towns in England where they built 
synagogues. There were fifteen hundred at York 
about the year 1 1 89. At Bury, in Suffolk, is a very 
complete remain of a Jewish synagogue of stone in 
the Norman style, large and magnificent. Hence 
it was that many of the learned English Eccle- 
siastics of those times became acquainted with 
their books and language. In the reign of 
William Rufus, the Jews were remarkably nu- 
merous at Oxford, and had acquired considerable 
property ; and some of their Rabbis were per- 
mitted to open a school in the university, where 
they instructed not only their own people, but 
many Christian students, in Hebrew literature, 
about the year 1094. Within 200 years after their 
admission or establishment by the Conqueror, 
they were banished the kingdom. This circum- 
stance was highly favourable to the circulation 
of their learnino- in Enoland. The suddenness 
of their dismission obliged them for present sub- 
sistence, and other reasons, to sell their moveable 



THE ENGLISH BIBLE. 67 

goods of all kinds, among- wbich were large 
quantities of of Rabbinical books. The monks 
in various parts availed themselves of the distri- 
bution of these treasures. At Huntingdon and 
Stamford there was a prodigious sale of their 
effects, containing immense stores of Hebrew 
manuscripts, which were immediately purchased 
by Gregory of Huntingdon, prior of the abbey of 
Ramsey. Gregory speedily became an adept in 
the Hebrew, by means of these valuable acquisi- 
tions, which he bequeathed to his monastery 
about the year 1250. Other members of the 
same convent, in consequence of these advantages, 
are said to have been equal proficients in the same 
language, soon after the death of Prior Gregory, 
among whom were Robert Dodford, Librarian 
of Ramsey, and Laurence Holbech, who compiled 
a Hebrew Lexicon. At Oxford a great number 
of their books fell into the hand? of Roger Bacon, 
or were bought by his brethren the Franciscan 
friars of that university. 



THE ENGLISH BIBLE. 

1 HE first translation of any part of the Holy 

Scriptures into English that was committed to 

the press, was The New Testament, translated 

from the Greek, by William Tyudale, with the 

k2 



68 LUXURY OF ANCIENT ROME. 

assistance of John Foye and William Roye, and 
printed first in 1526, in octavo. 

Tyndale published afterwards, in 1530, a 
translation of the Five Books of Moses, and of 
Jonah, in 1531, in octavo. An English transla- 
tion of the Psalter, done from the Latin of Martin 
Bucer, was also published at Strasburgh in 1530, 
by Francis Foye, octavo. And the same book 
together with Jeremiah, and the Song of Moses, 
were likewise published in 1534, in duodecimo, 
by George Joye, sometime fellow of Peter-House 
in Cambridge. 

The first time the whole Bible appeared in 
English, was in the year 1535 in folio. The 
translator and publisher was Miles Coverdale, 
afterwards Bishop of Exeter, who revised Tyn- 
dale's version, compared it with the original, and 
supplied what had been left untranslated by 
Tyndale. It was printed at Zurich, and dedica- 
ted to King Henry the Eighth. This was the 
Bible, which by Cromwell's injunction of Sep- 
tember, 1536, was ordered to be laid in Churches, 



LUXURY OF ANCIENT ROME. 

Jl HE most remote countries of the ancient 
world were ransacked to supply the pomp and 
delicacy of Rome. The forests of Scytbia 



LUXURY OF ANCIENT ROME. 69 

afforded some valuable furs. Amber was brought 
overland from the shores of the Baltic to the 
Danube ; and the Barbarians were astonished at 
the price which they received in exchange for so 
useless a commodity. Pliny has observed with 
some humour that even fashion had not found out 
the use of amber. Nero sent a Roman knio-ht to 
purchase great quantities on the spot where it 
was produed. There was a considerable demand 
for Babylonian carpets and other manufactures 
of the East ; but the most important and unpopu- 
lar branch of foreign trade was carried on with 
Arabia and India. Every year about the time of 
the summer solstice, a fleet of a hundred and 
twenty vessels sailed from Myoshormos, a port of 
Egypt on the Red Sea. By the periodical assis- 
tance of the monsoons, they traversed the ocean in 
about forty days. The coast of Malabar, or the 
island of Ceylon, was the usual limit of their navi- 
gation, and it was in those markets that the mer- 
chants from the more remote countries of Asia 
expected their arrival. The return of the fleet of 
Egypt was fixed to the months of December or 
January ; and as soon as their rich cargo had been 
transported on the backs of camels, from the Red 
Sea to the Nile, and had descended that river as 
far asAlexandria,it was poured without delay, into 
the capital of the empire. The objects of oriental 
traflic were splendid and trifling ; silk, a pound 
of which was esteemed not inferior in value to a 



70 RHYME. 

pound of gold ; precious stones, among \vhichthe 
pearl claimed the first rank after the diamond : 
and a variety of aromatics, that were consumed 
in religious worship and the pomp of funerals. 
The labour and risk of the voyage was rewarded 
with almost incredible profit; but the profit 
was made upon Roman subjects, and a few indi- 
viduals were enriched at the expense of the publico 
As the natives of Arabia and India were con- 
tented with the productions and manufactures 
of their own country, silver, on the side of the 
Romans, was the principal, if not the only instru- 
ment of commerce. It was a complaint worthy 
of the gravity of the senate, that in the pursuit of 
female ornaments, the wealth of the state was 
irrecoverably given away to foreign and hostile 
nations. The annual loss is computed by a writer 
of an inquisitive, but censorious temper, at 
upwards of eight hundred thousand pounds 
sterlincf'* 



RHYME. 



JliVERY language has powers, and graces, and 
music peculiar to itself; and what is becoming 
in one, would be ridiculous in another. Rhyme 
was barbarous in Latin and Greek verse, because 

* Pliny, Hist. Nat. xii. 18. 



RHYME. 71 

these languages by the sonorousness of their 
words, by their libert}^ of transposition and in- 
version, by their fixed quantities and musical 
pronunciation, could carry on the melody of verse 
without its aid ; and an attempt to construct 
English verses after the form of hexameters, and 
pentameters, and sapphics, is as barbarous among 
us. It is not true that rhyme is merely a 
monkish invention. On the contrary, it has 
obtained under different forms in the versification 
of most known nations. It is found in the 
ancient poetry of the northern nations of Europe ; 
it is said to be found among the Arabs, the Per- 
sians, the Indians, and the Americans. This 
shews that there is something in the return of 
similar sounds, which is grateful to the ears of 
most part of mankind. 

The present form of our English heroic 
rhyme in couplets, is a modern species of versifi- 
cation. The measure generally used in the days 
of queen Elizabeth, king James, and king 
Charles I. was the stanza of eight lines, such as 
Spenser employs, borrowed from the Italian, a 
measure very constrained and artificial. Waller 
was the first who brought couplets into vogue ;* 
and Dryden afterwards established the usage. 
Waller first smoothed our verse ; Dryden per- 
fected it. Pope's versification has a peculiar 

* Shakespeare, occasionally, in his plays, uses couplets. 



72 M. COaUEBERT DE MONTBRET. 

character. It is flowing and smooth in the highest 
degree ; far more laboured and correct than 
that of any who went before him. He intro- 
duced one considerable change into heroic 
verse, by almost throwing aside the triplets, 
or three lines rhyming together, in which 
Dryden abounded. Dryden's versification, how^- 
ever, has very great merit ; and like all his pro- 
ductions, has much spirit, mixed with care- 
lessness. If not so smooth and correct as Pope's, 
it is however more varied and easy. He subjects 
himself less to the rule of closing the sense with 
the couplet ; and frequently takes the liberty of 
making his couplets run into one another, with 
somewhat of the freedom of blank verse. 



M. COQUEBERT DE MONTBRET. 

1 HIS gentleman was one of the commercial 
commissioners from France to England during 
the short peace which took place after the treaty 
of Amiens. In March, 1803, 1 was in company 
with M. de Month ret, who expressed his dissatis- 
faction in very angry terms, because he was not 
able to procure specimens of the different clays 
made use of by Mr. \\ edgwood in his manufac- 
ture of earthen ware in Staffordshire. He urged 
with much vehemence the politeness and attention 



BR. THOMAS PIERCE. 73 

that were shewn to Mr. Thomas Wedgwood in 
France the preceding* summer, when on a visit to 
that country, and who it appeared had made 
something- like a promise that he would send to 
France specimens of the various clays made use 
of in the potteries. In answer to Monsieur de 
Montbret it was observed, that Mr. Thomas 
Wedgwood had no concern whatever in the 
jDotteries, and that his brother, Mr. Josiah 
Wedgwood, who was the proprietor, would never 
give his consent that specimens of the clays 
should be sent to France, but on the contrary 
always strongly resisted every application for 
that purpose. M. de Montbret replied, that as 
clay was a natural production, if there was not 
that particular sort in France, it would be impos- 
sible to form it by any artificial means — besides, he 
only wished to have those things as specimens of 
English earths, merely with a view of forming 
a collection of the earths and minerals of this 
country. 



Dr. THOMAS PIERCE. 

Dr. pierce. Dean of Sarum, a perpetual 
controversialist, and to whom it was dangerous to 
refuse a request, lest it might raise a controversy, 
asked Dr. Ward, bishop of Salisbury, for a 

L 



74 WRITING AMONG THE GREEKS. 

Prebend for his son. He was refused ; and 
studying" reveng-e, he opened a controversy with 
the bishop, maintaining' that the king had the 
right of bestowing every dignity in all the 
Cathedral Churches of the kingdom, and not the 
bishops. This required a reply from the bishop, 
who had formerly been an active controversialist 
himself. Dean Pierce renewed his attack with 
a folio volume, entitled ** A vindication of the 
king's sovereign right, 8cc/* Thus it proceeded, 
and the web thickened round the bishop in re- 
plies and rejoinders. It cost him many tedious 
journeys to London, through bad roads, fretting" 
at " the king's sovereign right" all the way ; 
and in the words of a witness, " in unseasonable 
times and weather, that by degrees his spirits 
were exhausted, his memory quite gone, and he 
was totally unfitted for business." Such was 
the fatal disturbance occasioned by Dean 
Pierce's folio of " The king's sovereign right." 



WRITING AMONG THE GREEKS. 

illS a proof of the simplicity of the times de- 
scribed by Homer, it is a great doubt if his 
kings and heroes could write or read ; at least 
when the Crecian leaders cast lots who should 
engage Hector in single combat, in the seventh 



WRITING AMONG THE GREEKS. 75 

Iliad, they only made their marks, for when the 
lot sig-ned by Ajax fell out of the helmet, and 
was carried round by the herald, none of the 
chiefs knew to whom it belonged till it was 
brought to Ajax himself. 

The learned Mr. Wood in his Essay on the 
original genius and writings of Homer, after 
observing that neither in the Iliad nor Odyssey 
is there any thing that conveys the idea of letters 
or reading, nor any allusion to literal writing, 
adds, ** As to symbolical, hieroglyphical, or 
picture-like description, something of that kind 
was, no doubt, known to Homer, of which the 
letter (as it is called) which Bellerophon carried 
to the king of Lycia is a proof." This letter was 
sent from Praetus ; (Iliad, vi. line, 168, &c.) 

'' To Lycia the devoted youth he sent, 
With marks, expressive of his dire intent 
Grav'd on a tablet, that the Prince should die." 

The probability that Homer lived much 
nearer the times he described than is usually 
supposed, has been shewn by Mr. Mitford (HisL 
of Greece, Appx, to c7i, 4,) with all the clearness 
of which so distant an event is capable. 

To this account of the ignorance of the Greeks 
in literal writing may be added that the Mexi- 
cans, though a civilized people, had no alphabet; 
the art of writing: was no farther advanced amons;^ 
them than the using of figures composed of painted 

l2 



76 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

feathers, by which they made a shift to communi- 
cate some simple thoughts ; and in that manner 
was the Emjjeror Montezuma informed of the 
landing- of the Spaniards in his territories. 



ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, 

OR AVRITING ROOMS IN THE MONASTERIES 
OF ENGLAND. 

JLT wouki be in vain to attempt to trace the 
state of learning among the Anglo-Saxons before 
their conversion to christianitv, sometime after 
which event, schools and seminaries of learning 
were established in the kingdom of Kent, and soon 
after the year 63o, in that of the East Angles. 
Previously to this period of our history, the two 
principal scholars of the Britons were Gildas and 
Nennius, the first of whom flourished towards the 
latter end of the sixth century, and the latter in 
the beginning of the seventh. To Gildas we owe 
the first lights which are cast upon the trouble- 
some limes of the Britons, and of the miseries 
those wretched people suffered by the invasion 
and conquests of the Saxons. He has left a short 
history of Bjitain and an epistle, in which he 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 77 

heavily accuses the British princes and clergy* 
who were contemporary with him.* 

To Nennius we owe also a short history of the 
Britons, and their wars with the Saxons, but the 
whole is so concise, and so many miracles are 
crowded into it, that it is no easy matter to sepa- 
rate truth from fiction. 

* Gildas, called Badonicus^ because said to be born at Bathy 
was, for his singular prudence and the severity of his morals, 
surnamed the wise ; he was a monk of Bangor, and his 
'' Description of the state of Britain," above alluded to, is 
the only one of his writings extant, as we are assured by 
Archbishop Usher. Gildas wrote this work in Latin, in a 
style, according to that age, harsh and perplexed enough. 
The first printed edition of it was published by Polydore 
Virgil, in octavo, London, 1525, and dedicated io Cuthbert 
Tunstal, Bishop of Durham, which, however, was from an 
incorrect copy. It was reprinted at Basil, in 12mo,in 1541 ; 
and at London, 1548, though Bishop Nicolson says 1568. 
It was again printed ni London, in 12mo, in 1638, translated 
by Thomas Habingdon, of Henlip, in Worcestershire. 
John Josseline, secretary to Archbishop Parker, reprinted 
Gildas more correctly from two new manuscripts, Basil, 1 568, 
12mo; and Paris 1576; but these are little more perfect than 
the first. — The latest and best copy of Gildas is in Dr. Gale's 
collection of Ancient English Historians, 2 vols, folio, Oxford, 
1687 and 1691 ; who had the advantage of a more ancient and 
better copy, as Bishop Nicolson observes. Besides Habing- 
dons's translation above mentioned, there was another printed 
during the Cromwell rebellion, in 1652, for the mere purpose, 
it has been said, of retailing Gildas's sharp reproofs of Kings 
and Priests. — For an account of this edition, see Oldys's 
British Librarian, and Savage's Librarian, vol. 1. p. 117. 



78 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, who came 
into Britain at the latter end of the seventh cen- 
tury, contributed greatly to the improvement of 
learning. About the same time flourished Aid- 
helm, a near relation of In a, king of the West 
Saxons ; he was Abbot of Malmesbury, which 
monastery himself had founded, and he was after- 
terwards Bishop of Sherborne, where he died in 
the year 709. Besides other works he left a book 
on the prosody of the Latin tongue in which he 
was very expert, being the first Anglo-Saxon that 
ever wrote in that language both in prose and 
verse. 

On the establishment of Monasteries and Reli- 
gious Houses in this kingdom, there was a room 
called the Scriptorium, allotted in all the greater 
Abbeys, or else some portion of the cloister was 
appropriately fitted up for the same purpose, 
where their music and missals, the works of the 
fathers and other religious books, the latin classics, 
and such literary works as the monks could ob- 
tain, were copied. In the old library in Wor- 
cester Cathedral, and in the remaining libraries 
of some other Cathedral churches, may still be 
seen the manner of writing music, before the in- 
vention of the present notes, and some of the old 
copies of books. 

By means of these Scriptoria, or writing 
rooms, the monks compiled and preserved, the 
first annals of Saxon History ; without which. 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 79 

however strange the composition of some of them 
may appear at this time, this would now have 
been a land of darkness, as to any account of 
what passed therein, during- former ages. 

The custom of making this one good use of 
monasteries and of christian societies, was de- 
rived from very early days. About the year 220, 
Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem, built a library 
there, for preserving the epistles of learned 
ecclesiastical persons, written one to another ; 
and their commentaries on the holy scriptures. 
And in what manner Origen was aided to write 
his admirable works, we learn from Eusebius, 
who tells us that he had more than seven notaries 
appointed for him, who, every one in his turn, 
wrote that which he uttered ; and as many more 
scriveners, together with maidens, well exercised 
and practised in penmanship, who were to write 
copies. (EccL Hist, of Eusebius Pamphilus, lib. 
C. cap, 20 and 2\,) 

The preservation and progress of science by 
means of monasteries, is a very curious fact, and 
the precious estimation in which books were 
held, when few could read them, is still more so. 
Some few learned men existed in different parts 
of Europe throughout those times of darkness and 
ignorance. Our countryman the Venerable Bede 
was well versed both in sacred and profane his- 
tory, as his numerous works testify. 

St. Egbert, Arclibishop of York, was a disciple 



80 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 



of Venerable Bede ; he was a man of great learn- 
ing-, and founded a noble library at York about 
735, which was casually burnt in the reign of king' 
Stephen, with the cathedral, the monastery of St. 
Mary, and several other religious houses. 

Alcuin, called also Albinus Flaccus, was born 
in Northumberland ; he was the disciple of 
Archbishop Egbert, whom he succeeded in the 
charge of the famous school, which that prelate 
had opened at York. Alcuin was in all respects 
the most learned man of the age in which he 
lived ; he was an orator, historian, poet, mathe- 
matician, and divine. The fame of his learn- 
! ! ing induced Charlemagne to invite him to his 

court ; and by his assistance that Emperor, 
founded, enriched, and instructed, the universi- 
ties of Tours and Paris. In 794 Alcuin was 
one of the fathers of the synod of Frankfort, and 
died at his abbey at Tours, in 804. In his epistle 
to Charlemagne he mentions with great respect 
his master Egbert, and the noble library which he 
had founded at York. Towards the latter end of 
the same century flourished our great king Alfred, 
who engaged the learned Grimbald, and other 
foreigners of distinguished abilities in his service. 
Eadfrid, who was bishop of Lindisfarne in the 
year 698, was one of the most learned men of his 
time. He translated the gospels into latin, which 
work after liis death was highly decorated by his 
successor with gold and jewels. Bilfrid, a hermit, 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 81 

illuminated it with various paintings and rich de= 
vices ; and Adred a priest, interlined it with a 
Saxon version. Before each gospel is prefixed a 
painting" of the evangelist who wrote it, and the 
opposite page is full of beautiful ornaments, 
enriched with various colours ; then follows the 
commencement of the gospel, the first page of 
which is most elaborately ornamented with letters 
of a peculiar form, and very large, which displays 
at once the zeal of the writer, and the taste of the 
age in w^hich the book was written.* This curi- 
ous work is now among the Cottonian manuscripts 
in the British Museum. It w^as lost in the sea 
during the removal of the body of St. Cuthbert 
in those troublesome times, about the year 87G, 
when the Danes were laying waste the whole 
country, but it was afterwards found washed up 
on the shore without suffering any injury. 
(Hutchinsoii s History of Durham, 1. p. 57.) 
It was under the patronage of the same learned 
prelate Eadfrid, that the Venerable Bedef wrote 
the life of St. Cuthbert. 

* Strutt, ia his '' Chronicle of England" has given a plate 
representing a page of this manuscript, and in Astle's 
'' History of Writing," there is a plate of the same page^ 
coloured, in imitation of the original. 

f Bede, commonly called the Venerable Bede, was the 
most learned man of the age in which he lived ; he was bom 
at Weremouth, in Northumberland, in the year 672. Both 
ancient and raodern authors have bestowed the highest 

M 



82 ACCOUNT or THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

The books which Fergus the second^ king of 
Scotland, who assisted Alaric the Goth, had 
brought with him as a part of the plunder from 
Rome, had been deposited in the monastery in 
the island of lona. From thence they were, by 
degrees, copied for the use of other monasteries ; 
and besides these, other books were obtained 
afterwards by means of various journeys to 
Rome. Benedict Biscop, the founder of the 
monastery of Weremouth, and the friend of 
Archbishop Wilfrid, made no fewer than five 
journeys to Rome to purchase copies of books. 
These books became deposited in various monas- 
teries. Some such were at Canterbury, where 
also were books that had been brought from 
Rome, both by Augustine and Theodore. And 
the letter of Aldhelm, the very person who found- 
ed the monastery of Malmesbury, containing an 
account of his studies, and progress at Canter- 
bury by the help of such books, is one of the most 
curious fragments of antiquity. (An(/L Sacra, 
torn. 2. p. 6.) 

encomiums upon the learning of this extraordinary man. 
His works are many, making eight large Tolumcs, in folio, 
the ])rincipal of which is his Ecclesiastical History of the 
Anglo-Saxons, consisting of five books, from whence the 
more perfect part of our early history is formed ; his other 
works arc the Lives of Saints, Treatises on the Holy Scrip- 
tures, and Philosophical Tracts. This great man died at his 
cell at Jarrow, in the year 735, aged 63. 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 8^5 

The price of these books was at various times 
enormous. Aldfred, king* of Northumberland, 
gave eight hides of' land, that is, as much as eight 
ploughs couhi till, for one volume of cosmogra- 
phy ; and on this occasion it perhaps ought not 
to be forgotten, that there is still preserved in 
the library of Hereford cathedral, an ancient 
map on parchment, for the illustration of cosmo- 
graphy as known at the period of its being 
drawn. In the reign of William the Conqueror 
books were extremely scarce. Grace, Countess 
of Anjou, paid for a collection of homilies, two 
hundred sheep, a quarter of wheat, another of 
rye, and a third of millet, besides a number of 
martin skins. (Kaimes's Sketches, 1. !36.) 

In these conventual Scriptoria were copied the 
writings of the ftithers and the abstruse works of 
the first schoolmen ; here also were copied little 
works of genius, sometimes the effusion of 
fancy and imagination. The fables of ^sop 
were so much in repute, that we are told king 
Alfred himself made a translation of them from the 
Greek. The fanciful devices on the friezes and 
mouldings of some of our ecclesiastical struc- 
tures, which have an allusion to -^sop's Fables, 
had their first origin amongst pious and ingenious 
persons, in the peaceful retirement of their con- 
ventual retreats. This remark is much confirm- 
ed by a curious observation which has been lately 
made, that even many of the fables themselves- 

31 2 



84 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

that now pass for ^sop's, seem to have had their 
real invention and origin in the abodes of the 
religious. In a very curious memoir concerning 
the works of Mary, an Anglo-Norman poetess, 
born in France, who wrote in the French lan- 
guage in the reign of king Henry the third of 
Enghnid, and who among other things translated 
the fables of jEsop, it is made to appear that 
there were mdeed but few of ^sop's original 
fables in her collection, and even those she had 
borrowed entirely from England, and the greater 
part, from several allusions in them, evidently 
shew, that they must have been composed in 
monasteries, before her time. (See Hume's 
Hist, of Eng, vol, 1. Ato. p. 68. — Kings Muni- 
menta Ant, vol, 4. p, 113. — and Arch^ologia, 
vol 13. p, 36— 67.J 

It is an interesting circumstance, deserving to 
be mentioned on this occasion, that before the 
time of Venerable Bede, there lived an Anglo- 
Saxon poet, of the name of Ctedman, or Kedman, 
of the wondrous powers of whose mind Bede 
speaks in the highest terms, ( Bede's Eccles, 
Hist, hook 4. ch, 24.) and says he sung of the 
creation of the world, of the origin of mankind, 
and of the whole history of the book of Genesis, 
He died about the year 680, and therefore mast 
have been contemporary with Etheldreda, who 
founded the monastery of Ely. And it is a very 
curious fact, little known, that Lye, the author 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 85 

of the Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, translated this 
poem, and that therein it was found had been 
introduced, almost exactly, the same idea of the 
fallen angels, and even the peculiarity of the 
nine days falling-, and of Satan's assembling- his 
Thanes, on their rousing- themselves, which was 
afterwards introduced by Milton into his Para- 
dise Lost. This account, Mr. King says, he re- 
ceived from Dr. Percy, bishop of Dromore, 
who had several manuscripts of Lye's bequeathed 
to him ; and who was well qualified to investi^ 
gate such curious matters of ancient literature. 

It should not be forgotten with regard to 
manuscripts, the productions of these industrious 
penmen in their Scriptoria, that king Alfred is 
said by the Saxon writers, to have first received 
his eagerness for erudition, in an age when he 
himself complained of the general ignorance 
even of the clergy, from his mother's shewing 
him a book of Saxon poems, beautifully written, 
and illuminated, and promising to give it to 
which ever of her sons should soonest learn to 
read it. 

Until the eleventh century, musical notes were 
expressed only by letters of the alphabet ; and 
till the fourteenth century they were expressed 
only by large lozenge-shaped black dots or points, 
placed on different lines, one above another, 
and then first named ui, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which 
si was afterwards added ; and they were all 



86 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

expressed without any distinction as to length of 
time; and without any such things as breves, 
semi-breves, minims, crotchets, or quavers, &c. 
The old psalters in many cathedral churches are 
found thus written ; and in consequence of this 
it was, that the Scriptoria in some other places, as 
well as at Gloucester, are found so contrived, as to 
have long ranges of seats, or benches, one beyond 
another, for the copyists ; so that a master or per- 
son standing at one end, and naming each note, it 
might quickly be copied out by all, naming it in 
succession from one end to the other. Hence the 
psalters were more easily copied than any other 
books, and it is not a little remarkable that in 
the library at Worcester, there is a copy of St. 
Matthew's gospel, set to music throughout, with 
these sort of notes. 

In foreign monasteries, the boys and novices 
were chiefly occupied in these labours, but the 
missals and bibles were ordered to be written by 
monks of mature age and discretion. The Scrip- 
torium of St. Albans's abbey was built by Abbot 
Paulm, a Norman, who ordered many volumes 
to be written there, about the year 1080. Arch- 
bishop Lanfranc furnished the copies. Estates 
were often granted for the support of the Scripto- 
rium ; that at St. Edmundsbury was endowed 
with two mills, and in the year 1171, the tithes 
of a rectory were appropriated to the cathedral 
convent of St. Swithin at Winchester, ad Libro& 



In the monasteries of ENGLAND. 87 

transcribendos Many instances of this species 
of benefaction occur from the tenth century. 
Nig-el, in the year 1 160, g-ave the monks of Ely 
two churches, ad libros faciendos. 

This employment of copying* manuscripts ap- 
pears to have been diligently practised at Croy- 
land ; for Ingulphus relates, that when the library 
of that convent was burned in the year 1091, 
seven hundred volumes were consumed. Fifty- 
eight volumes were transcribed at Glastonbury, 
during the government of one abbot, about the 
year 1300. And in the library of this monastery, 
the richest in England, there were upwards of 
four hundred volumes in the year 124S. More 
than eighty books were thus transcribed for St. 
Alban's abbey, by Abbot Whethamstede, who 
died about 1400. At the foundation of Winchester 
college, by William of Wykeham, about 1393, 
one or more transcribers were hired and employed 
by the founder to make hooks for the library. They 
transcribed and took their commons within the 
college, as appears by computations of expenses 
on their account now remaining. 

In the monastery of Ely, the Precentor, or 
Chantor, was the chief librarian, and had within 
his Office, the Scriptorium, where writers were 
employed in transcribing books for the library, 
and missals and other books used in divine service. 
This officer furnished the vellum, parchment,' 
paper, ink, colours, gums, and other necessaries 



88 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

for limners, used in illuminating their books ; and 
leather, and other implements for binding-, and 
keeping- them in repair. 

Some of the Roman classics were copied in the 
Eng-lish monasteries at a very early period. 
Henry, a Benedictine monk of Hyde abbey, near 
Winchester, transcribed in the year 1 1 78,Terence, 
Boethius, Suetonius, and Claudian. Of these he 
formed one volume, illuminating the initials, and 
forminof the brazen bosses of the covers with his 
own hands ; but this abbot had more devotion 
than taste, for he exchanged this manuscript a 
few years afterwards for four missals, the legend 
of St. Christopher, and St. Gregory's Pastorai. 
Care, with the Prior of the neighbouring 
cathedral convent. Benedict, abbot of Peter- 
borough, author of the latin chronicle of king 
Henry the second, amongst a great variety of 
scholastic and theological treatises, transcribed 
Seneca's epistles and tragedies, Terence, Mar- 
tial, and Claudian, to which may be added 
Gesta Alexandri, about the year 1180. 

In a catalogue of the books of the library of 
Glastonbury, we find Livy, Sallust, Seneca, 
TuUy de Senectute and Amicitia, Virgil, 
Persius, and Claudian, in the year 1248. Among 
the royal manuscripts of the British Museum, i$ 
one of the twelve books of Statius's Thebaid, 
supposed to have been written in the tenth cen- 
tury, which once belonged to the cathedral 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 89 

convent of Rochester. And another of Virgil's 
iEneid, written in the thirteenth, which came 
from the library of St. Austin's, Canterbury. 
Wallingford, abbot of St. Alban's, gave or 
sold from the library of that monastery to 
Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham, author of 
the " Philobiblton," and a great collector 
of books, Terence, Yirgil, Quintilian, and 
Jerome against Rufinus, together with thirty-two 
other volumes, valued at fifty pounds of silver. 
The scarcity of parchment undoubtedly prevented 
the transcription of many other books in these 
societies. About the year 1120, one Master 
Hugh, being appointed by the convent of St. 
Edmundsbury in Suffolk, to write and illuminate 
a grand copy of the bible for their library, could 
procure no parchment for this purpose in Eng- 
land. It is to this scarcity of parchment that 
we owe the loss and destruction of many valuable 
manuscripts of the ancients, which otherwise 
might have been preserved to us. The venerable 
fathers who employed themselves in erasing the 
writing of some of the best woi ks of the most 
eminent Greek or Latin authors for the purpose of 
transcribing upon the obliterated parchment or 
vellum the lives of saints, or legendary tales, 
possibly mistook these lamentable depredations 
for works of piety. The ancient fragment of the 
91st book of Livy, discovered by Mr. Burns in 
the Vatican, in 1772, was found to be much 



90 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

defaced in this respect by the pious labours of 
some well-intentioned monk. 

The monks of Durham having begun to build 
a college for their novices at Oxford, about the 
year J 290, Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham, 
not only assisted, but also partly endov^^ed it. At 
his decease, in 1345, he left to this college, then 
called Durham, and since Trinity, college, all his 
books, which were more in number than all the 
bishops in England then possessed, in order 
that the students of that college, and of the Uni- 
versity, might, under certain conditions make use 
of them. After the college came into possession 
of these books, they were, for many years, kept 
in chests, under the custody of several scholars 
deputed for that purpose, and a library being' 
built in the reign of king Henry the fourth, 
these books were put into pews or studies, and 
chained to them. They continued in this man- 
ner till the college was dissolved by king Henry 
the eighth, when they were conveyed away, 
some to Duke Humphrey's library, where they 
remained till the reign of king Edward the 
sixth, and others to the library of Baliol college. 
Some which remained came into the hands of 
Dr. George Owen, a physician of Godstow, who 
purchased Trinity college of Edward the sixth. 

The bishop of Durham wrote a treatise con- 
taining rules for the management of the library 
above-mentioned, describing;' how the books were 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 9t 

to be preserved, and upon wHat conditions they 
were to be lent out to scholars, and appointed 
five keepers, to whom he granted yearly salaries. 
This treatise he called " Philohiblion,'" from 
whence he himself came to be called by the 
same name, " a lover of books,'* and this very 
justly, if, as he says himself in the preface to it, 
his love of them was so violent that it put him 
into a kind of rapture, and made him neglecc all 
his other affairs. He finished it at Auckland, the 
24th of January, 1345, being then just 63 years 
of age. It was printed at Spires in 1483 ; at 
Paris, by Badius Ascensius, in 1500 ; by the 
learned Thomas James, at Oxford, in 1599, in 
quarto ; and at Leipsic, in 1674, at the end 
of Philologicarum Epistolarum Centuria una, ex 
Sibliotheca Melch, Hamingfeldii* It also in 
manuscript in the Cottonian library, in the royal 
library, and in other libraries in Oxford and 
Cambridge. 

The " Philobiblion,'^ is written in very indiffer- 
ent Latin, and in a declamatory style. It is divii- 
ded into twenty chapters. In chapter I. the 
author praises wisdom, and books in which it is 
contained. 2. That books are to be preferred to 
riches and pleasure. 3. That they ought to be 
always bought. 4. How much good arises from 
books, and that they are misused only by igno- 
rant people. 5. That good monks write books, 
but the bad ones are otherwise employed* 
N 2 



92 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

6. The praise of the ancient begging friars, with 
a reproof of the modern ones. 7. He bewails 
the loss of books by fire and wars. 8. He shews 
what fine opportunities he had had of collecting 
books, whilst he was chancellor and treasurer, as 
well as during his embassies. 9. That the 
ancients outdid the moderns in hard studying. 
30. That learning is by degrees arrived at per- 
fection, and that he had procured a Greek and 
Hebrew grammar. 1 1 . That the law and law 
books are not properly learning. 12. The use- 
fulness and necessity of grammar. 13. An 
apology for poetry, and the usefulness of it. 
14. Who ouo^ht to love books. 15. The mani- 
fold advantages of learning. 16. Of writing 
new books and mending the old. 17. Of using 
books well, and how to place them. 18. An 
answer to his calumniators. 19. Upon what 
conditions books are to be lent to strangers. 
20. Conclusion. 

In the " Philohiblion'' the bishop apologizes 
for admitting the poets into his collection ; 
quare non negleximus Fahidas Poetarum, But he 
is more complaisant to the prejudices of his age, 
where he says, that the laity are unworthy to be 
admitted to any commerce with books : Laici 
omnium libronim communione sunt indigni. He 
prefers books of the liberal arts to treatises of the 
law. He laments that good literature had en- 
tirely ceased in the university of Paris. He 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 93 

admits Panfletos exiguos into his library. He 
employed Stationarios and Lihrarios, not only in 
England, but in France, Italy, and Germany. 
He regrets the total ignorance of the greek 
language ; but adds that he has provided for the 
students of his library both Greek and Hebrew 
grammars. He calls Paris the ** paradise of the 
world,'* and says that he purchased there a 
variety of invaluable volumes in all sciences, 
which yet were neglected and perishing. While 
he was Chancellor and Treasurer of England, 
instead of the usual presents and new year's 
gifts appendant to his office, he chose to receive 
those perquisites in books. By the favour of 
king Edward the third, he gained access to the 
libraries of the principal monasteries, where 
he shook off the dust from various volumes pre- 
served in chests and presses, which had not been 
opened for many ages. 

There were several collections of manuscripts 
in England before the general restoration of 
science in Europe, which had at different times 
been brought hither by those who had travelled 
into foreign countries ; these were chiefly pre- 
served in the two Universities, in the cathedral 
churches, and in religious houses, but in the 
fifteenth and sixteenth century several valuable 
libraries were formed in England. 

In the reign of king Henry the sixth, Hum- 
phrey, Duke of Gloucester, fourth and youngest 



94 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOM* 

son of king Henry the fourth, was a singular 
promoter of literature, just at the dawning of 
science and learning. However unqualified ti»is 
eminent personage was for political intrigue, and 
to contend with his malicious and powerful ene- 
mies, among whom the Cardinal Beaufort was 
the principal, he was nevertheless the common 
friend and patron of all the scholars of his time. 
A sketch of his character and pursuits, as being 
closely connected with the progress of English 
literature, cannot fail of proving interesting, 
more especially as they are peculiarly associated 
with the subject of the present inquiry. 

About the year 1440, the Duke gave to the 
University of Oxford a library, containing six 
hundred volumes, one hundred and twenty only 
of which were valued at more than one thousand 
pounds of the money of that day. These books, 
it need not be observed, were all in manuscript, 
the art of printing not having then been dis- 
covered ; they are called Novi TractatttSf or New 
Treatises, in the University Register, and arc 
said to be admirandi apparatus. They were the 
most splendid and costly copies that could be 
procured, finely written on vellum, and elegantly 
embellished with miniatures and illuminations. 
Among the rest was a translation into French of 
Ovid's Metamorphoses. Only a single specimen 
of these valuable volumes was suffered to remain ; 
it is a beautiful manuscript, in folio, of Valeriius 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 95 

Maximus, enriched with the most elegant deco- 
rations, and written in Duke Humphrey's age, 
evidently with a design of being placed in this 
sumptuous collection. All the rest of the books, 
which, like this, being highly ornamented, looked 
like missals, were destroyed or removed by the 
pious visitors of the University, in the reign of 
king Edward the sixth, whose zeal was equalled 
only by their ignorance, or perhaps by their 
avarice. A great number of classics, in this 
grand work of reformation, were condemned as 
anti-christian, and some of the books, in this 
library, had even been before this, either stolen 
or mutilated. In the library of Oriel College, at 
Ojcford, we find a manuscript Commentary on 
Genesis, written by John Capgrave, a monk, 
belonging to the monastery of St. Austip^ at 
Canterbury, a learned theologist of the fifteenth 
century. In it is the author's autograph, and 
the work is dedicated to Humphrey, Duke of 
Gloucester. In the superb initial letter of the 
dedicatory epistle, is a curious illumination of the 
author Capgrave, humbly presenting his book to 
his patron, the Duke, who is seated, and covered 
with a sort of hat. At the end of the volume is 
this entry, in the hand-writing of Duke Hum- 
phrey : — *' C'est Livre est a moy Humfrey, 
Due de Gloucestre, du don de Frere Jehan Cap- 
grave, quy le me fist presenter a mon manoyr de 
Pensherst le jour del'an Mccccxxxvni.'* 



96 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

This is one of the books which Humphrey gave 
to his new library at Oxford, destroyed or dis- 
persed by the active reformers of the young 
Edward. He also gave to the same library 
Capgrave Super Exodum et Return Libros. 

John Whethamstede, a learned abbot of St. 
Alban's, and a lover of scholars, but accused by 
his monks of neglecting their affairs, while he 
>vas too deeply engaged in studious employments, 
and in procuring transcripts of useful books, not- 
withstanding his unwearied assiduity in beautify- 
ing and enriching their monastery, was in high 
favour with this munificent prince. The Duke 
was fond of visiting this monastery, and employed 
Abbot Whethamstede to collect valuable books 
for him. Some of Whethamstede' s tracts, manu- 
script copies of which often occur in our libraries, 
are dedicated to the Duke, who presented many 
of them, particularly a fine copy of Whetham- 
stede's Granarium, an immense w^ork, which 
Leland calls ingens volumeri to the new library. 
The copy of Valerius Maximus, mentioned before, 
has a curious table or index, made by Whetham- 
stede. Many other Abbots paid their court to 
the Duke, by sending him presents of books, the 
margins of which were adorned with the most 
exquisite paintings. 

Gilbert Kymer, physician to king Henry the 
sixth, and holding, among other ecclesiastical 
preferments, the Deanery of Salisbury and 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 97 

Chancellorship of the University of Oxford ; the 
latter dignity by the recommendatory letters of 
the Duke, inscribed to the Duke of Gloucester his 
famous medical system-^ Di€Btarium de Sanitatis 
Custodia — in the year 1424. 

Lydgate,* one of the early English poets, trans- 
lated Boccacio's book, De Casihus Virorum 
illustrium, at the recommendation and command, 
and under the protection and superititendance, 
of Duke Humphrey, whose condescension in 
conversing with learned ecclesiastics, and dili- 
gence in study, the translator displays at large,^ 
and in the strongest expressions of panegyric. 
He compares the Duke to Julius Caesar, who, 
amidst the weightier cares of stale, was not 

* Lydgate was commoaly called the Monk of Bury, 
because born at that place, about the year 1380. After 
some time spent in the English Universities, he travelled 
through France and Italy, in which countries he greatly 
improved himself. In addition to his poetical talents, he is 
described as being an eloquent rhetorician, an expert mathe- 
matician, an acute philosopher, and no mean divine. He is 
said to have been so much admired by his contemporaries, 
that they said of him, that his wit was fashioned by the 
Muses themselves. After his return from France and Italy, 
he became tutor to the sons of several of the nobility, and 
for his excellent endowments, was much esteemed and re- 
verenced by them. He wrote a poem, called The Life and 
Death of Hector^ some satires, eulogies, and odes, and other 
learned works in prose. He died in 1440, aged sixty, and 
was buried in his own convent at Bury. Lydgate is said to 
have been a disciple of Chaucer. 

o 



D8 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

^\sliuined to enter the rhetorical school of Cicero 
at Rome. Nor was his pati'onag-e confined only 
to Eno'lish scholars. His favour was solicited 
by the most celebrated writers of France and 
Italy, many of wliom he bountifully rewarded. 
Leonard Aretin,* one of the first restorers of the 
Greek tong-ue in Italy, (which language he 
learned of Emanuel Chrysoloras,f ) and of polite 

"^' Leonard Aretln, the disciple of Chrysoloras, was a lin- 
guist, aa orator, and an historian ; the secretary of four 
successive Popes ; and Chancellor of the Republic of Flo- 
rence, where he died in 1444, aged seventy-five. He added 
a Supplement to Livy on the Punic War, and wrote the 
History of Italy, with other valuable works. 

T Emanuel Chrysoloras was one of the envoys sent by 
the Greek Emperor Manuel, at the end of the fourteenth 
century, to implore the compassion of the Western Princes. 
He was not only conspicuous for the nobleness of his birth 
but also for the extent of his learning. After visiting the 
coucts of France and England, in furtherance of his mission, 
he was invited to assume the office of a Professor, and 
Florence had the honour of this invitation, as it had had a 
few years previously that of the first Greek Professor Leo 
Pilatus, whose mind was stored with a treasure of Greek 
learning, with whom history and fable, philosophy and 
grammar, were alike familiar, and who first read the Poems 
of Homer in the Scliools of Florence. Chrysoloras may be 
couhiidcrcd as the founder of the Greek language in Italy, 
and his knowledge not only of the Greek, but of the Latin 
tongue, surpassed the expectation of the Florentine republic. 
At the same time and place, the Latin classics were explain, 
ed by John of Ravenna, the domestic pupil of the celebra- 
ted Petrarch. The Italians, who illustrated their ag« and 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. W 

literature in g'eneral, dedicates to this uiuversal 
patron his elegant Latin translation of Aristotle's 
Politics, The copy presented to the Duke by 
the translator^ most elegantly illuminated, is now 
in the Bodleian library. 

To the same noble encourager of learning, 
Petrus Candidus, the friend of Laurentius Valla,* 

country, were formed in this double school, and Florence 
became the fruitful seminary of Greek and Roman erudilioii. 
Chrysoloras was recalled by the Emperor from the college to 
the court, but he afterwards taught at Pavia and Rome wif ii 
equal industry and applause. He died at Constance on ar 
public mission from the Emperor to the council. Gibbon's 
Hist, Tol. 12. p. 126. 

* Laurentius Valla, was a natire of Placenza, where he 
was born in 1415; he revived the Latin language from 
gothic barbarity, but he was a rigorous critic. He fell 
under the displeasure of the Church cf Rome, for the freedom 
■with which he hazarded his opinions respecting some of its 
doctrines, and he was condemned to be burnt, but was saved- 
by Alphonsus, king of Naples. Pope Nicholas the fifth, 
who was himself one of the greatest encouragers of learning 
of his time, and who highly respected the talents of Valla, 
invited him to Rome, and gave him a pension. ^ — This Pope, 
whose pursuits were in direct association with our present 
subject, from a plebeian origin, raised himself by his virtue 
and his learning to the highest honours of the Church. The 
character of the man prevailed over the interest of the Pontiff, 
and he sharpened those weapons which were soon pointed 
against the religion of Rome, lie had been the friend of the 
most eminent scholars of the age, and after his elevation to 
the chair of St. Peter, he became their patron. Under Pope 
Nicholas, the influence of the Ifoly See pervaded Christendom, 

O 2 



100 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS 

and secretary to the g-reat Cosmo, Duke of Milan, 
inscribed by the advice of the Archbishop of 
Milan, a Latin version of Plato's Republic, An 
ilkiminated manuscript of this translation is in 
the British Museum, perhaps the copy presented, 
with two epistles from the Duke to Petrus 
Candidus. 

Petrus de Monte, another learned Italian of 
Venice, in the dedication of his treatise — De 
Virtuium et VUiorum differentia — to the Duke of 
Gloucester, mentions the latter's ardent attach- 
ment to books of all kinds, and the singular 
avidity vi'ith which he pursued every species of 
literature. 

A tract entitled Comparatio Studiorum et Rei 
3Iilitaris, written by Lopus de Castellione, a 
Florentine civilian, and a great translator into 

and he exerted that influence in the search, not of benefices, 
but of books. From the ruins of the Byzantine librariesy 
from the darkest monasteries of Germany and Britain, he 
collected the dusty manuscripts of the writers of antiquity ; 
and whenerer the original could not be removed, a faithful 
copy was transcribed and transmitted for his use. The 
Vatican was daily replenished with precious furniture, and 
such was his industry, that in a reign of eight years, he 
formed a library of five thousand volumes. To his munifi. 
cence the Latin world was indebted for the versions of Xeno. 
phon, Diodorus, Polybius, Thucydides, Herodotus, and 
Appian ; of Strabo*s Geography, of the Iliad, of the more 
valuable works of Plato and Aristotle, of Ptolemy, and 
Theophrastus, and of the Father! of the Greek Church. 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 101 

Latin of the Greek classics, is also inscribed to 
the Duke at the desire of Zeno, archbishop of 
Bayeux. It must not be forgotten that our 
illustrious Duke invited into England the learned 
Tito Livio of Foro-Juli, whom he naturalized 
and constituted his poet and orator. He also 
retained learned foreigners in his service, for the 
purpose of transcribing, and of translating from 
Greek into Latin. One of these was Antonio de 
Beccaria, a Veronese, who translated into Latin 
prose the Greek poem of Dionysms Afer de Situ 
Orhis ; whom the Duke also employed to tran- 
slate into Latin six tracts of Athanasius. This 
translation, inscribed to the Duke, is now among 
the royal manuscripts in the British Museum, 
and at the end, in his own hand-writing, is the 
following insertion : — " C'est Livre est a moi 
Homphrey Due le Gloucestre : le quel je fis 
translater de grec en latin par un de mes secre- 
taires Antoyne de Beccara ne de Verone." 

An astronomical tract, entitled, by Leland, 
Fahulce Directionum, is erroneously supposed to 
have been written by Duke Humphrey. But it 
was compiled at the Duke's instance, and accord- 
ing to tables which he had himself constructed^ 
called by the anonymous author in his preface, 
Tabulas lUnstrissimi principis et nobilissimiDomini 
mei, Humfredi, ^c. In the library of Gresham 
College, however, there is a scheme of calcula- 
tions in astronomy, which bears his name. 



102 ACCOUNT OFTHE SCRIPTORIA,OR WRITING ROOMS 

Astronomy was then a favourite science ; nor is 
it to be doubted that he was intimately acquainted 
with the politer branches of knowledge which 
now began to acquire estimation, and which his 
liberal and judicious attention g-reatly contributed 
to restore. 



King- Edward the fourth and Henry the seventh 
greatly assisted the cause of learning, by the 
encouragement they gave to the art of printing 
in England, and by purchasing such books as 
w^ere printed in other countries. William War- 
ham, archbishop of Canterbury, purchased many 
valuable Greek manuscripts which had been 
brought hither by the prelates and others after the 
taking of Constantinople by the Turks. 

King Henry the eighth may justly be called 
the founder of the royal library, which was en- 
riched with the manuscripts selected from the 
scriptoria and libraries of the principal monas- 
teries, by that indefatigable antiquary John 
Leland. 

Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, 
enriched the library of the college of Corpus 
Christi, with a great number of ancient and curi- 
ous manuscripts. 

In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas 
Bodley greatly increased the public library at 
Oxford, which is now called by his name. This 
great benefactor to the literature of his country, 



IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 103 

■quitted the court, and applied himself wholly to 
the purchasing" of books and manuscripts both at 
home and abroad. By these means he had the 
satisfaction of furnishing that library with 1294 
manuscripts, which by the subsequent liberality 
of many great and illustrious persons, has been 
since increased to more than eight thousand 
volumes, including the manuscripts given by 
Tanner, Bishop of Norwich, and the valuable 
library bequeathed by the will of Dr. Richard 
Rawlinson, 

Considerable augmentations were made to the 
libraries of the several colleges in the two univer- 
sities, as also to those of our cathedral churches, 
the palace at Lambeth, the Inns of Court, the 
College of Arms, and others ; catalogues of which 
were published at Oxford in 697 under the title 
of Catalogus Manuscriptorum Anglioe et Hihernice. 

Bodley's great contemporary. Sir Robert 
Cotton, is also entitled to the gratitude of posterity 
for his diligence in collecting the Cottonian 
library ; he was engaged in the pursuit of manu- 
scripts and records upwards of forty years, 
during which time he spared neither trouble nor 
expense. 

The noble manuscript library founded by 
Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, and greatly en- 
riched by his son Edward, who inherited his 
father^s love of science, claims a distinguished 
place in every account which may be given of 



J 04 ACCOU^IT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, &c. 

the literary treasures of antiquity in general, and 
of this country in particular. Posterity will ever 
be indebted to her grace the Duchess Dowager 
of Portland, for securing this inestimable treasure 
of learning to the public, by authority of Parlia- 
ment, under the guardianship of the most distin- 
guished persons of the realm, both for rank and 
abilities, whose excellent regulations have made 
this library, as also the Royal, Cottonian,Sloanian, 
and others, now deposited in the British Museum, 
easy of access, and consequently of real use to the 
philosopher, tl;ie statesman, the historian, the 
scholar, and the artist.'* 

* For an account of the following Manuscript Libraries 
in England, see Savagel's Librarian, 5 toIs. London, 1 SOS- 
IS 10 — namely, that of the British Museum, in vol. 1. p. 26 ; 
of the Royal Society, p. 71 ; of the Heralds Office, p. 73 ; 
of the Society of Antiquaries, p. 129 ; of the Archbishop of 
Canterbury's at Lambeth Palace, p. 133 ; of Lincoln's Inn, 
p. 183, 225 ; of the Middle Temple, p. 273; of the Inner 
Temple, toI. 2. p. 131 ; of the Lansdown Collectioti 6f 
Manuscripts, toI. 1. p. 34, and vol. 3. p. 27, and of the 
Cottonian Manuscripts, vol. 3. p. 31. 

The curious reader who is interested in the history of the 
public records of his country, ^vill find in the same volumes, 
the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons on 
the State of the Records, in vol. 1. p. 17, SfC — an accduot 
of the Records in th6 Tower of London, vol. 2. p. 34, &c. of 
those in the Rolls Chapel, ibid. p. 185, &c. and of those in 
the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey, vol. 8. p. 41, &c. 



TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 105 



TORTURE IN ENGLAND.* 

J.N the reign of King- Henry the Sixth, the 
Rack or Brake, was placed in the Tower of 
London, by the Duke of Exeter, when he and 
the Earl of Suffolk had formed the design of in- 
troducinof the Civil Law into Eng^land. It was 
called '^ Exeter's daughter,'* and remained after- 
wards in the Tower, " where it was occasionally 
used as an Engine of Slate, more than once in 
the reicjn of Elizabeth,'" 

Though the use of the Rack does not appear 
to have been known in this country until the 
26th year of Henry the Sixth, and though it was 
never authorized by the law, yet to borrow the 
expression of Mr. Justice Blackstone, it was 
occasionally used as an " Engine of State," to 
extort confession from State Prisoners confined in 
the Tower, from the time of its introduction, 
until finally laid aside in consequence of the 
decision of the judges in Fel ton's case. One 
Hawkins was tortured-f in the reign of Henry the 
Sixth ; and the case of Anne Askew,f in that of 

* Vide Serjeant Heywood's Vindication of Mr. Fox's 
History of James the Second, p. 397. 

+ Fuller's Worthies, p. 317. 

X There is a small book, printed in black letter, contain- 
ing an account of the treatment and trial of Anne Askew, 
■which contains many curious particulars, — She was the 

P 



1D6 TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 

Henry the Eig-lith,* cannot escape the recollec- 
tion of every reader of English history. The Lord 
Chancellor Wriothesely (1 blush for the honour 
and humanity of an English Judg-e while I 
^vrite his name) went to the Tower to take her 
examination, and upon the Lieutenant's refusing 
to draw the cords tighter, drew them himself 
till every limb was dislocated, and her body 
nearly torn asunder. In Mary's reign several 
persons were racked in order to extort con- 
fessions, which was upon account of Sir Thomas 
Wyat's rebellion. And Barrmgton mentions 
that in Oldmixon's History of England (p. 284,) 
one Simpson is said to have been tortured in 
15o8, and a confession extorted. 
In the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth, f the 

daughter of Sir William Askew, of Kclsay, in the countj of 
Lincoln, where she was born about 1520. She had a learned 
education, and while young was married to a person of the 
name of K) me, much against her inclination. On account 
of some harsh treatment from her husband, she went to the 
Court of Henry the Eighth to sue for a separation, where she 
was greatly taken notice of by those ladies who were attached 
to the Reformation; inconsequenceof which, she was arrested, 
and having confessed her religious principles, was committed 
to Newgate. She was first racked with savage cruelty in the 
Tower, and then burnt in Smithficld, in 1546, in company 
with iier tutor, and two other persons of the same faith. From 
her letters and other pieces in P'ox and Strype, it appears she 
was an accomplished, as well as a pious, woman. 

* Burnet's Reformation, vol. 1. p. 323 ; vol. 2. p. 382. 

+ Collier's Eccl. Hist. vol. 2. p. 591.--Murden's State 
Papers, p. 9, 101. » 



TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 107 

Rack was used upon offenders ag-ainst the State, 
and amon^ others, upon Francis Throgmorton ; 
in 1571, upon Charles Baillie an attendant upon 
the Bishop of Ross, Mary's ambassador, and upon 
Banastre, one of the Duke of Norfolk's servants ; 
and Barker, another of his servants was brought 
to confess by extreme fear of it. In 1581, 
Campion, the Jesuit, was put upon the rack,* 
and in 1585, Thomas Morgan writes to the 
Queen of Scots, that he has heard D. Atslow was 
racked in the Tower, twice about the Earl of 
Arundel. This is the last instance of the actual 
application of torture to extort confession. 

For the greater part of this reign the applica- 
tion of torture in the examination of State offenders 
seems to have been in common use, and its 
legality not disputed. Mr. Daines Barrington 
says,"!* that among the manuscript papers of Lord 
Ellesmere, is a copy of instructions to him, as 
Lord President of the Marches, to use the torture 
on the taking of some examinations at Ludlow ; 
and Sir Edward Coke himself, J in the year 1600, 
(the 43d of Elizabeth's reign) then being Attorney 
General, at the trials of the Earls of Essex and 
Southampton, boasted of the clemency of the 

* Collier's Eccl. Hist. toI. 2. p. 139.— Murden's State 
Papers, p. 452. 

+ Observations on Ancient Statutes, p. 496, ntie, 

X State Trials, vol. 1. p. 199. 
p2 



108 TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 

Queen, because, though the rebellious attempts 
were so exceedingly heinous, yet out of her 
princely mercy " no person was racked, tortured, 
, or pressed to speak any thing further than of their 

I own accord/* And in the Countess of Shrews- 

bury'^case (10 James 1st) when Sir Edward was 
' Chief Justice, in enumerating the privileges of the 

I . nobility, he mentions as one, that their bodies were 

I not subject to torture m causa criminis Icesce majes- 

\ talis, Barrington justly observes* there was a re- 

I gular establishment for torture, for at his trial, f in 

I the first year of James the first, SirWalter Raleigh 

stated that Kemish had been threatened with the 
rack, and the keeper of the instrument sent for. 
SirWilliam Wade, who, with the Solicitor General 
had taken his examination, denied it, but ad- 
mitted they had told him he deserved it, and 
I Lord Howard declared, ** Kemish was never on 

I the rack, the king gave charge that no rigour should 

j he usecV 

Barrington mentionsj that Sir John Hay ward, 

the historian, was threatened with the rack, which 

Dr. Granger confirms ; and the former also re- 

I marks that it is stated in King James's works, that 

I the rack was shewn to Guy Faukes when under 

I examination. 

I * Observations on Statutes, p. 495. 

I + State Trials, vol. 1. p. 221. 

i J Observations on Statutes, p. 92. 



TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 109 

Down to this period we do not find the legality 
of the practice questioned, though it has been said 
by high authority, as will be stated presently, 
that some doubts had been suggested to Queen 
Elizabeth. State Prisoners were confined usu- 
ally in the Tower, and commissioners, attended by 
the law officers of the crown, were sent to examine 
them,who applied the rack at their own discretion, 
or according to the order of the privy council, or 
the king's, without any objection being made to 
their authority. 

In the third year of King Charles the first, 
Felton was threatened with the rack by the Earl 
of Dorset in the Tower, and Laud, then bishop of 
London, repeated the threats in council, but the 
king insisted upon the judges being consulted as 
to the legality of the application, and they being 
unanimously of opinion that it was illegal, it was 
never attempted afterwards. The answer which 
Felton made to Laud's threats, is well worthy of 
attention ; when Laud told him " if he would not 
confess he must go to the rack," he replied " if it 
must be so, he could not tell whom he might no- 
minate in the extremity of torture, and if what 
he should say then was to go for truth, he could 
not tell whether his Lordship (meaning the 
bishop of London) or which of their Lordships 
he might name, for torture might draw unexpected 
things from him." 

In the year 1680 (32 Charles 2d) Elizabeth 



110 TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 

Collier was tried at the Old Bailey,^ before Mr. 
fiaron Weston, for the publication of a libel, iu 
which many circumstances were related for the 
purpose of inducing- a belief that Prance, when a 
prisoner in Newgate, had been tortured there, 
and he was produced to prove the falsehood of the 
publication. The learned judge in summing* up 
the evidence to the jury said, ** But you must 
first know the laws of the land do not admit a 
torture, and since Queen Elizabeth's time there 
hath been nothing of that kind ever done. The 
truth is indeed, in the twentieth year of her reign. 
Campion was just stretched upon the rack, but 
yet not so but he could walk ; but when she was 
told it was against the law of the land to have any 
of her subjects racked (though that was an ex- 
traordinary case, a world of seminaries being 
sent over to contrive her death, and she lived in 
continual danger) yet it was never done after 
to any one, neither in her reign, who reigned 
twenty-five years, nor in king James's reign, who 
reigned twenty-two years after, nor in king 
Charles the first's reign, who reigned twenty-four 
years after ; and God in Heaven knows there 
hath been no such thing ofiered in this king's 
reign ; for I think we may say we have lived 
under as lawful and merciful a government as any 
people whatsoever, and have as little blood shed, 
and sanguinary executions as any nation under 
heaven." 

* State Trials, vol. 3. p. 99. 



TORTURE IN ENGLAND. Ill 

The learned judge may have been mistakea 
when stating Campion to be the last person racked, 
for in Murden's state papers, one Atslow, as before 
observed, is mentioned to have been tortured four 
years afterwards. Mr. Baron Weston states that 
upon a suggestion made to Queen Elizabeth of 
the illegality of the practice, it was discontinued 
in her reign, and thus we may account for 
Campion being racked with so little severity, as 
to be able to walk afterwards, and to manage the 
conferences with protestant doctors during his 
confinement in prison. 

In the Jurisprudence of the Romans the 
deceitful and dangerous experiment of the crimi- 
nal queestion, as it is emphatically styled, was ad- 
mitted, rather than approved. The Roman 
government applied this sanguinary mode of 
examination only to servile bodies, whose suffer- 
ings were seldom weighed by those haughty Re- 
publicans in the scale of justice or humanity; 
but they would never consent to violate the 
sacred person of a citizen, till they possessed the 
clearest evidence of his guilt.* The annals of 
tyranny, from the reign of Tiberius to that of 
Domitian, circumstantially relate the executions 
of many innocent victims ; but as long as the 
faintest remembrance was kept alive of the 

* The Pandects (1. xlviii. tit. xviii.) contain the senti- 
ments of the most celebrated civilians on the subject of 
torture. They strictly confine it to slaves. 



112 TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 

national freedom and honour, the last hours of a 
Roman were secure from the dangler of igrno- 
minious torture. The conduct of the provincial 
magistrates was not, however, regulated by the 
practice of the city, or the strict maxims of the 
Civilians. They found the use of torture esta- 
blished not only among the slaves of oriental 
despotism, but among the Macedonians, who 
obeyed a limited monarchy among the Rhodians, 
who flourished by the liberty of commerce ; and 
even among the sage Athenians, who had assert- 
ed and adorned the dignity of human nature.* 
The acquiescence of the people in the provinces 
encouraged their governors to acquire or perhaps 
to usurp, a discretionary power of employing the 
Rack, to extort from vagrants or plebeian crimi- 
nals the confession of their guilt, till they insen- 
sibly proceeded to confound the distinctions 
of rank, and to disregard the privileges of 
Roman citizens. The apprehensions of the 
subjects urged them to solicit, and the interest 
of the Sovereign engaged him to grant, a 

* The Citizens of Athens could not be put to the rack, 
unless it was for high treason. The torture was used within 
thirty days after condemnation. There was no preparatory 
torture. In regard to the Romans, the third and fourth law 
de Majestate^ by Julius Caesar, shews that birth, dignity, 
and the military profession exempted people from the rack, 
except iu cases of high treason. — Montesquieu's Spirit oj 
Lawsy vol. 1. p. 132. 



TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 113 

variety of special exemptions, which tacitly 
allowed, and even authorized, the general use of 
torture. They protected all persons of illustri- 
ous or honourable rank, bishops and their pres- 
byters, professors of the liberal arts, soldiers and 
their families, municipal officers, and their pos- 
terity to the third generation, and all children 
under the age of puberty. But a fatal maxim 
was introduced into the new jurisprudence of the 
Empire, that in the case of treason, which in- 
cluded every offence that the subtlety of lawyers 
could derive from an hostile intention towards the 
prince or republic, all privileges were suspended 
and all conditions were reduced to the same ig- 
nominious level. As the safety of the Emperor 
was avowedly preferred to every consideration 
of justice or humanity, the dignity of age, and 
the tenderness of youth were alike exposed to 
the most cruel tortures ; and the terrors of a 
malicious information, which might select them 
as the accomplices, or even as the witnesses, 
perhaps, of an imaginary crime, perpetually hung 
over the heads of the principal citizens of the 
Roman world'* 

* Archadius Charisius is the oldest lawyer quoted in the 
Pandects to justify the universal practice of torture in all 
cases of treason ; but this maxim of tyranny, "which is ad- 
mitted by Ammianus with the most respectful terror, is 
enforced by several laws of the succr-'jsor') of Constantine.— 
Gibbon's Rom, H?sf. vol. 3. p. 81. 

a 



114 DR. Johnson's conversation 



I 



Dr. JOHNSON S CONVERSATION 

WITH THE LATE KING. 

jLN February, 1767, there happened one of the 
most remarkable incidents of Johnson's life, 
which gratified his monarchical enthusiasm, and 
which he loved to relate with all its circumstan- 
ces, when requested by his friends. This was 
his being- honoured by a private conversation 
with his late Majesty, in the Library at the 
Queen's house. He had frequently visited those 
splendid rooms, and noble collection of books, 
which he used to say was more numerous and cu- 
rious than he supposed any person could have 
made in the time which the king- had employed. 
Mr. Barnard the Librarian, took care that he 
should have every accommodation that could 
contribute to his ease and convenience, while in- 
dulging his literary taste in that place, so that he 
had here a very agreeable resource at leisure 
hours. 

His Majesty having been informed of his 
occasional visits, was pleased to signify a desire 
that he should be told when Dr. Johnson came 
next to the library. Accordingly the next time 
that Johnson did come, as soon as he was fairly 
engaged with a book, on which, while he sat by 



WITH THE LATE KING. 11 6 

the fire he seemed quite intent, Mr. Barnard 
stole round to the apartment where the king was, 
and, in obedience to his Majesty's commands, 
mentioned that Dr. Johnson was then in the 
library. His Majesty said he was at leisure and 
would go to him ; upon which Mr. Barnard 
took one of the candles that stood on the king's 
table, and lighted his Majesty through a suite of 
rooms till they came to a private door into the 
library, of which his Majesty had the key. 
Being entered, Mr. Barnard stepped forward 
hastily to Dr. Johnson, who was still in a pro- 
found study, and whispered him, ** Sir, here is 
the king." Johnson started up, and stood still. 
His Majesty approached him, and at once was 
courteously easy. 

His Majesty began by observing, that he 
understood he came sometimes to the library ; 
and then mentioned his having heard that the 
Doctor had been lately at Oxford, asked him if 
he was not fond of going thither. To which 
Johnson answered, that he w^as indeed fond of 
going to Oxford sometimes, but was likewise 
glad to come back again. The king then asked 
him what they were doing at Oxford. Johnson 
answered he could not much commend their 
diligence, but that in some respects they were 
mended, for they had put their press under better 
regulations, and were at that time printing 
Polybius. He was then asked whether there 

a 2 



116 DR. JOHNSON'S CONVERSATION 

were better libraries at Oxford or Cambridge ; 
he answered, he believed the Bodleian was 
larger than any they had at Cambridge ; at the 
same i'uue adding, " I hope whether we have 
more books or not than they have at Cambridge, 
we shall make as good use of them as they do/' 
Being asked whether All-Souls or Christ Church 
library vs'as the largest, he answered, "All-Souls 
library is the largest we have except theBodleian." 
" Aye, (said the king) that is the public library." 
His Majesty enquired if he was then writing 
any thing, he answered, he was not, for he had 
pretty well told the world what he knew, and 
must now read to acquire more knowledge. The 
king as it should seem with a view to urge him 
to rely on his own stores as an original writer, 
and to continue his labours, then said, ** I do not 
think you borrow much from any body." Johnson 
said he thought he had already done his part as a 
writer. " I should have thought so too," said 
the king, " if you had not written so well." — 
Johnson observed to me, says Bos well, that " No 
man could have paid a handsomer compliment ; 
and it was fit for a king to pay. It was decisive." 
When asked by another friend at Sir Joshua 
Reynolds's, whether he made any reply to this 
high compliment, he answered, ** No, Sir. 
When the king had said it, it was to be so. It 
was not for me to bandy civilities with my 
Sovereign." Perhaps no man who had spent 



WITH THE LATE KING. 117 

his whole life in courts could have shewn a more 
nice and dignified sense of true politeness than 
Johnson did in this instance. 

*« His Majesty having observed to him, that 
he supposed he must have read a great deal, 
Johnson answered, that he thought more than he 
read ; that he had read a great deal in the early 
part of his life, but having fallen into ill health, he 
had not been able to read much compared with 
others ; for instance he said he had not read 
much, compared with Dr. Warburton. Upon 
which the king said, that he heard Dr. Warbur- 
ton was a man of such general knowledge, that 
you could scarce talk with him on any subject on 
which he was not qualified to speak, and that his 
learning resembled Garrick's acting in its uni- 
versality. The king observed that Pope made 
Warburton a bishop ; " True, Sir, said Johnson, 
but Warburton did more for Pope, he made him 
a Christian;'* alluding no doubt, to his ingenious 
comments on the ' Essay on Man.' His 
Majesty then talked of the controversy between 
Warburton and Lowth, which he seemed to have 
read, and asked Johnson what he thought of it. 
Johnson anwsered," Warburton has most general, 
most scholastic learning ; Lowth is the more 
correct scholar. I do not know which of them 
calls names best." The king was pleased to 
say he was of the same opinion ; adding, " You 
do not think then, Dr. Johnson, that there was 



lis DR. JOHNSON'S CONVERSATION 

much arg-iiment in the case." Johnson said he 
did not think there was. " Why, truly," said 
the king, ** when once it conies to calling names, 
argument is pretty well at an end." 

His Majesty then asked him what he thought 
of Lord Lyttelton's history, which was just then 
published. Johnson said, he thought his style 
pretty good, but that he had blamed Henry the 
Second rather too much. '* Why, said the king, 
they seldom do these things by halves." " No, Sir, 
answered Johnson, not to kings." But fearing 
to be misunderstood, he proceeded to explain 
himself, and immediately subjoined, " That for 
those M'ho spoke worse of kings than they 
deserved, he could find no excuse ; but that he 
could more easily conceive how some might speak 
better of them than they deserved, without any 
ill intention ; for, as kings had much in their 
power to give, those who were favoured by them 
would frequently, from gratitude, exaggerate 
their praises ; and as this proceeded from a good 
motive, it was certainlji excusable, as far as error 
could be excusable." 

The king then asked him what he thought of 
Dr. Hill. Johnson answered, that he was an 
ingenious man, but had no veracity ; and imme- 
diately mentioned, as an instance of it, an asser- 
tion of that writer, that he had seen objects 
magnified to a much greater degree by using 
three or four microscopes at a time than by using 



WITH THE LATE KING. 119 

one. " Now," added Johnson, " every one ac- 
quainted with microscopes knows, that the more 
of them he looks through, the less the object will 
appear." " Why," replied the king", *< this is 
not only telling an untruth, but telling it clumsily; 
for, if that be the case, every one who can look 
through a microscope will be able to detect 
him." 

I now, (said Johnson to his friends, when re- 
lating what had passed) began to consider that 
I was depreciating this man in the estimation of 
his Sovereign, and thought it was time for me to 
say something that might be more favourable. 
He added, therefore, that Dr. Hill was, notwith- 
standing*, a very curious observer ; and if he wonld 
have been contented to tell the world no more 
than he knew% he might have been a very consi- 
derable man, and needed not to have recourse to 
such mean expedients to raise his reputation. 

The king then talked of Literary Journals, men- 
tioned particularly the Journal des Savnns, and 
asked Johnson if it was well done. Johnson said 
it was formerly very well done, and gave some 
account of the persons who began it, and carried 
it on for some years ; enlarging at the same time, 
on the nature and use of such works. The king 
asked him if it was well done now. Johnson 
answered, he had no reason to think that it was. 
The king then asked him if there were any other 
Literary Journals published in this kingdom, 



120 DR. JOHNSON'S CONVERSATION 

except the Monthly and Critical Reviews ; and on 
being- answered there were no other, his Majesty 
asked which of them w^as the best ; Johnson 
answered, that the Monthly Review was done with 
most care, the Critical upon the best principles ; 
adding that the authors of the Monthly Review^ 
were enemies to the church. This the king said 
he was sorry to hear. 

The conversation next turned on the Philoso- 
phical Transactions, when Johnson observed that 
they had now a better method of arranging their 
materials than formerly. " Aye, said the king, 
they are obliged to Dr. Johnson for that" ; for 
his Majesty had heard and remembered the cir- 
cumstance, which Johnson himself had forgot. 

His Majesty expressed a desire to hate the 
literary biography of this country ably executed, 
and proposed to Dr. Johnson to undertake it. 
Johnson signified his readiness to comply with 
his Majesty's wishes. 

During the whole of this interview, Johnson 
talked to his Majesty with profound respect, but 
still in his firm manly manner, with a sonorous 
voice, and never in that subdued tone which is 
commonly used at the levee and in the drawing- 
room. After the king withdrew, Johnson shewed 
himself highly pleased with his Majesty's conver- 
sation, and gracious behaviour. He said to Mr. 
Barnard, " Sir, they may talk of the king as 
tUey will ; but he is the finest gentleman I have 



WITH THE I.ATE KING, 121 

«ver seen.'* And he afterwards observed to Mr. 
Langton, " Sir, his manners are those of as fine a 
gentleman as we may suppose Lewis the four- 
teenth, or Charles the second." 



Dr. BEATTIE'S CONVERSATION 

WITH THE LATE KING AND QUEEN. 

Dr. BEATTIE had been informed by Dr. 
Majendie, who lived at Kew, and was often at the 
palace, that the king- havings asked some questions 
of the doctor respecting* him, and being- told 
that he sometimes visited Dr.,Majendie there, his 
Majesty had desired to be informed the next time 
Dr. Beattie was to be at Kew. What his 
Majesty's intentions were. Dr. Majendie said he 
did not know j but supposed the king* intended to 
admit him to a private audience. A day was 
therefore fixed, on which Dr. Beattie was to be 
at Dr. Majendie's house early in the morning", of 
which the Doctor was to ^ive notice to his Ma- 
jesty. Of this interesting event, so honourable 
to Dr. Beattie, I shall transcribe in his own words, 
says Sir William Forbes, the account he has given 
in his diary : — 

"Tuesday, 24th August, (1773) set out for 
Dr. Majendie's at Kew Green. The Doctor 

R 



122 DR. BEATTIE'S COlS^VERSATrON 

told me that he had not seen the king yesterday, 
but had left a note in writing", to intimate, that 
I was to be at his house to-day ; and that one of 
the king's pages had come to him this morning, 
to say, ** that his Majesty would see me a little 
after twelve." At twelve, the Doctor and I went 
to the king's house at Kew. We had been only 
a few minutes in the hall, when the king and 
queen came in from an airing ; and as they 
passed through the hall, the king called to me by 
name, and asked how long it was since I came 
from town ? I answered about an hour. " I 
shall see you," says he, ** in a little." The 
Doctor and I waited a considerable time, for the 
king was busy, and then we were called into a 
large room, furnished as a library, where the king* 
was walking about, and the queen sitting in a 
chair. We were received in the most (rracious 
manner possible, by both their Majesties. 
I had the honour of a conversation with them, 
nobody else being present but Dr. Majendie, for 
upwards of an hour on a great variety of topics ; 
in which both the king and queen joined, with a 
degree of cheerfulness, affability, and ease, that 
was to me surprising, and soon dissipated the 
embarrassment which I felt at'the beginning of 



'&' 



the conference. They both complimented me in 
the highest terms on my " Essay," which they 
said was a book they always kept by them ; and 
the king said he had one copy of it at Kew, and 



WITH THE I.ATE KING AND QUEEN. 123 

another in town, and immediately went and 
took it down from a shelf. I found it was the 
second edition. " 1 never stole a book, but one," 
said his Majesty, " and that was your's (speaking 
to me) I stole it from the queen, to give it to 
Lord Hertford to read." He had heard that the 
sale of Hume's *' Essays" had failed, since my 
book was published ; and I told him what Mr. 
Strahan had told me, in regard to that matter. 
He had even heard of my being in Edinburgh 
last summer, and how Mr. Hume was offended 
on the score of my book. He asked many ques- 
tions about the second part of the " Essay," and 
when it would be ready for the press. 1 gave 
him, in a short speech, an account of the plan of 
it ; and said my health was so precarious, I could 
not tell when it might be ready, as I had many 
books to consult before I could finish it ; but, 
that if my health were good, I thought I might 
bring it to a conclusion in two or three years. 
He asked how long I had been in composing my 
Essay ? praised the caution with which it was 
written ; and said he did not wonder that it had 
employed me five or six years. He asked, about 
my Poems. I said there was only one poem of my 
own, on which I set any value (meaning the 
" Minstrel") and that it was first published about 
the same time with the ** Essay." My other 
poems, I said were incorrect, being but juvenile 
pieces, and of little consequence, even in my owa 

R 2 



124 DR. beattie's conversatiok 

opinion. We had much conversation on moral 
subjects ; from which both their Majesties let 
it appear, that they were warm friends to Chris- 
tianity ; and so little inclined to infidelity, that 
they could hardly believe that any thinking" man 
eould really be an Atheist, unless he could bring 
himself to believe, that he made himself; a 
thoug-ht which pleased the king exceedingly ; 
and he repeated it several times to the queen. 
He asked whether any thing had been written 
against me. I spoke of the late pamphlet, of 
which I gave an account, telling him, that I had 
never met with any man vt'ho had read it, except 
one quaker. This brought on some discourse 
about the quakers, whose moderation, and mild 
behaviour the king and queen commended, 
I was asked many questions about the Scots 
Universities : the revenues of the Scots Clergy ; 
their mode of praying and preaching ; the medi- 
cal college of Edinburgh; Dr. Gregory, of 
whom I gave a particular character, and Dr. 
Cullen ; the length of our vacation at Aberdeen, 
and the closeness of our attendance during the 
winter ; the number of students that attend my 
lectures ; my mode of lecturing, whether from 

: notes, or completely written lectures ; about 

Mr. Hume, and Dr. Robertson, and Lord Kin- 

j noul, and the Archbishop of York, &c. &c. 

; His Majesty asked what I thought of my new 

j ac(j[uaintance. Lord Dartmouth ? I said ther« 

I 



I 



WITH THE LATE KING AND aUEENs 125 

was something- in his air and manner, which I 
thought not only agreeable, but enchanting, and 
that he seemed to me to be one of the best of men f 
a sentiment in which both their Majesties heartily 
joined. " They say that Lord Dartmouth is an 
enthusiast," said the king, " but surely he says 
nothing on the subject of religion, but what every 
Christian may, and ought to say." He asked 
whether I did not think the English language 
on the decline at present ; I answered in the affir- 
mative ; and the king agreed, and named the 
*' Spectator" as one of the best standards of the 
language. When I told him that the Scots 
clergy sometimes prayed a quarter, or even half 
an hour at a time, he asked, whether that did not 
lead them into repetitions ? I said it often did. 
"That" said he, "I don't like in prayers; and 
excellent as our liturgy is, 1 think it somewhat 
faulty in that respect" " Your Majesty knows," 
said I, " that three services are joined in one, in 
the ordinary church service, which is one cause 
of those repetitions." " True," he replied, *^ and 
that circumstance also makes the service too 
long." From this he took occasion to speak of the 
composition of the church liturgy ; on which he 
very justly bestowed the highest commendation. 
" Observe," his Majesty said, " how flat those 
occasional prayers are, that are now composed, in 
comparison with the old ones." When I mentioned 
the smallness of the church livings in Scotland, 



126 DR. beattie's conversation 

he said, **he wondered how men of liberal educa- 
tion would cluise to become clergymen there," 
and asked, " whether in the remote parts of the 
country, the clergy, in general were not very 
ignorant ?" I answered, no, for that education 
was very cheap in Scotland, and that the clergy, 
in general, were men of good sense, and com- 
petent learning." He asked whether we had 
any good preachers at Aberdeen ? I said, yes, 
and named Campbell and Gerard, with whose 
names, however, I did not find that he was ac- 
quainted. Dr. Majendie mentioned Dr. Oswald's 
" Appeal,' with commendation ; I praised it too 
and the queen took down the name, with a view 
to send for it. I was asked, whether I knew Dr* 
Oswald ? 1 answ ered, I did not ; and said that 
my book w^as published before I read his; that 
Dr. Oswald was wt II known to Lord Kinnoul, 
who had often proposed to make us acquainted. 
We discussed a great many other topics ; for the 
conversation, as before observed, lasted for up- 
wards of an hour, without any intermission. 
The queen bore a large share in it. Both the 
king and her Majesty showed a great deal of 
good sense, acuteness, and knowledge, as well as 
of good nature and aflfiibility. At last, the king- 
took out his watch (for it was now almost three 
o'clock, his hour of dinner) which Dr. Majendie 
and 1 took as a signal to withdraw. We accord- 
ingly bowed to their Majesties, and 1 addressed 



WITH THE LATE KING AND aUEEN. 127 

the king" in these words : *' I hope, Sir, your 
Majesty will pardon me, if I take this opportu- 
nity to return you my humble and most grateful 
acknowledgments for the honour you have been 
pleased to confer upon me.'* He immediately 
answered, " I think 1 could do no less for a man, 
who has done so much service to the cause of 
Christianity. I shall always be glad of an 
opportunity to show the good opinion I have of 
you.'' The queen sate all the while, and the 
king stood, sometimes walking about a little^ 
Her Majesty speaks the English language with 
surprising elegance, and little or nothing of a 
foreign accent. There is something wonderfully 
captivating in her manner ; so that if she were 
only of the rank of a private gentlewoman, one 
could not help taking notice of her as one of the 
most agreeable women in the world. Her face 
is much more pleasing than any of her pictures ; 
and in the expression of her eyes, and in her 
smile, there is something peculiarly engaging. 

When the Doctor and I came out, " Pray," 
said I, " how did I behave ? Tell me honestly, 
for I am not accustomed to conversations of this 
kind." " Why perfectly well," answered he, 
" and just as you ought to do." — " Are you sure 
of that ?" said I. — " As sure," he replied, " as of 
my own existence ; and you may be assured of 
it too, when I tell you, that if there had been any 
thing in your manner or conversation, which was 



128 SACKED GARDENS. 

not perfectly agreeable, your conference would 
have been at an end in eight or ten minutes at 
most." The Doctor afterwards told me that it 
was a most uncommon thing for a private man, 
and a commoner, to be honoured with so long an 
audience. I dined with Dr. and Mrs. Majendie 
and their family, and returned to town in the 
evening, very much pleased with the occurren- 
ces of the day." 



SACRED GARDENS. 

JL he origin of sacred gardens among the 
heathen nations may be traced up to the garden 
of Eden. The gardens of the Hesperides, of 
Adonis, of Flora, were famous among the Greeks 
and Romans. " The garden of Flora,'' says Mr. 
Spence, (Polynietis, p. 251) "I take to have 
been the Paradise in the Roman Mythology. 
The traditions and traces of Paradise among the 
ancients must be expected to have grown fainter 
and fainter in every transfusion from one people 
to another. The Romans probably derived their 
notions of it from the Greeks, among whom this 
idea seems to have been shadowed out under the 
i>tories of the gardens of Alcinous. In Africa 



SIR THOMAS WYAt. 129 

they had the gardens of the Hesperides, and in 
the East those of Adonis, or the Horti Adonis, 
as Pliny calls them. The term Horii Adonides 
was used by the ancients to signify gardens of 
pleasure, which answers to the very name of 
Paradise, or the garden of Eden, as Horii Adonis 
does to the garden of the Lord.'* 



SIR THOMAS WYAT. 

[died 1541.] 

1 HE story of this eminent person, probably 
one of the principal ornaments of an age unable 
to discern his merits, or unwilling to record them, 
has been very imperfectly related. He was born 
at AUington Castle, in Kent, the ancient seat of 
his family, in 1503, and was the son of Sir 
Henry Wyat. He may be said to have finished 
his education in the society of that eminent 
character Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, with 
whom he travelled abroad, and with whom he 
" tasted in Italy,'* says Wood, ** the sweet and 
stately measures of the Italian poesy." These, 
as far as the rude state of our language, and the 
still ruder taste of the times, would allow, he 
applied to English verse. His poems were 
})rinted at London in 1565, and have since been 

S 



130 SIR THOMAS WYAT. 

frequently republished, in conjunction with those 
of his noble friend ; but here, as in other points 
of view, we have but glimpses of him ; for 
through the ignorance or carelessness of the 
original editor, his pieces are so confusedly 
blended with the Earl's, that not many of them 
can be positively ascertained.* 

Having been introduced at Court, where his 
endowments both of body and mind, recom- 
mended liim to the favour of king Henry the 
Eighth, he was employed in several foreign 
embassies, which he discharged with great 
ability. His influence with the king was pro- 

* There is an engraving of Sir Thomas in the collection of 
Holbein Heads, published by Mr. Chamberlaine. 

An original picture of him, which has been frequently 
copiedj is in the collection of the Earl of Romney. It is 
nearly a profile, and bears a strong resemblance to Holbein's 
drawing. 

There is a print of Sir Thomas Wyat, from an engraving 
on wood, after a painting by Holbein ; it is the frontispiece 
to the book of verses, written on his death, by Leland, 
entitled " Nainiaj in Mortem Thomae Viati Equitis incom- 
parabilis,'" an Elegy on the death of Sir Thomas Wyat, Knt. 
London, 1542, quarto. This book was reprinted by Hearuc, 
at the beginning of the second volume of Leland's Itinerary. 
Under the head is the following inscription ; — 

'* Holbcnus uitida pingendi maximus arte, 

" Efiigiem expressit graphice, sed nuUus Apelles 

" Exprimet ingenium felix, animumque Viati." 

This print has been copied by Michael Burghers and 
Mr. Tyson. Granger 1. 110. 



SIR THOMAS WYAT. 131 

verbial. Lloyd tells us that ** when a man was 
newly preferred, they said he had been in Sir 
Thomas Wyat's closet." 

We are informed by Wood (Afhen. Oxon») 
that Sir Thomas was sent by the king to 
Falmouth, for the purpose of conducting a 
Spanish Minister from thence to London. Being 
desirous of making great expedition, he fatigued 
himself so much that he was thrown into a fever, 
and was obliged to stop at Sherborne, in Dorset- 
shire, where he died a few days after, in the 
38th year of his age, " to the great reluctancy,'* 
sa3^s Wood, " of the king, kingdom, his friends, 
and all that knew the great worth and virtues of 
the person." He was buried in Sherborne 
Church.^ 

* The first printed Poetical Miscellany, in the English 
language, is the Collection of Poems, edited and published by 
Tottel, entitled " Songes and Sonnettes of Surrey, Wyat, 
and of uncertain Auctors, London, 1557." — Another edition, 
1565— others in 1574, 1585, 1587. The last edition was 
edited by Dr. George Sewell, in 1717. — This Dr. Sewell was a 
physician in London ; he received his early education at Eton^ 
which he afterwards completed at Cambridge, where he took 
the degree of Bachelor of Physic in 1709. From thence he 
went to Leyden, where he studied under the celebrated 
Boerhaave. Not being successful in the metropolis, he 
removed to Hampstead, where he died on the 8th of February, 
1726. As an author he possessed a considerable share of 
genius, and wrote in concert with several of his contem- 
poraries, particularly in the Spectator and Tatler ; he waa 
principally concerned in the ninth Tolume of the former, and la 



132 THE HAND A SYMBOL OF POWER. 

He left behind him a son of the same name, 
Avho lost his head for exciting a rebellion in the 
reign of queen Mary, from whom our poet is 
commonly distinguished by the appellation of 
Sir Thomas Wyat the elder. 



THE HAND A SYMBOL OF POWER. 



N Parkhurst's Hebrew Lexicon we have the 
folio win o' remarks on the Hand as an emblem of 
strength and power. " The hand was used by 
the Jews, as a trophy or monument of victory, 
and placed on the top of a pillar. Thus Saul, 
after smiting the Amalekites, in the pride of his 
heart erected to or for himself (not for Jehovah) 
a hand, 1 Samuel xv. 12. And David smote 
Hadadezer, king of Zobah, when he was going to 
erect his hand or trophy, by the river Euphrates, 
2 Sam. viii. 3, and 1 Chronicles, xviii. 3. — And 
this appears to be the most ancient use of these 
memorial hands ; whence Absalom seems to have 
taken the hint of erecting one, merely to keep his 

the fifth of the latter, as he was also in a translation of Ovid's 
Metamori-hoses, and an edition -of Shakespeare's Poems. 
He was the author of a Tragedy, entitled " Sir Walter 
Raleigh," published at London in 1719, and also of another, 
which he left unfinished, entitled " King Richard the First/' 
the fragments of which were printed in 1728. 



THE HAND A SYMBOL OF POWER* 13^ 

name in remembrance, 2 Sam. xviii. 18, where 
it may be observed that this monument is ex- 
pressly called not only a hand, but a pillar, which 
shews that the hand was wont to be put on a 
pillar. 

*' Neibuhr (Voyag-e in Arabia, torn. 2. p. 21 1. 
French edition) speaking of All's mosque at 
Mesched Ali, says, that *' at the top of the dome,, 
where one generally sees on the Turkish mosques 
a crescent, or only a pole, there is here a hand 
stretched out, to represent that of Ali." And 
another writer informs us, that at the Alhambra, 
or red palace of the Moorish kings in Granada, 
'* on the key-stone of the outward arch [of the 
present principal entrance] is sculptured the 
figure of an arm, the symbol of strength and 
dominion." 

" It may not be amiss to observe, that to this 
day in the East Indies the picture of a hand is 
the emblem of power or authority. Thus I am 
assured, says Parkhurst, by a gentleman of un- 
doubted veracity, who resided many years on the 
coast of Coromandel, that when the Nabob of 
Arcot, who in his time was governor oijive pro- 
vinces, appeared on public occasions, several 
small flags, with each a hand painted upon them, 
and one of a large size with five hands, were 
solemnly carried before him." 

The hand was used as an ensign of royalty by 
the kings of France and England. In Sandford's 



134 THE HAND A SYMBOL OF POWER. 

Genealogical History, there is the following* note 
on the counter-seal of king* Edward the third : 
*' In the margin of this counter-seal, near the 
point of the king's sword, is represented the hand 
of justice, being an ensign of royalty peculiar only 
to the kings of France, for though they in com- 
mon with other princes carry in their right hand 
a sceptre of gold, yet in the other they bear the 
hand of justice, being a short rod, and having on 
the top of it a left hand, wide open, made of ivory, 
on account of the elephant being the only qua- 
druped observable for his devotion, love of his 
governors, and for his equity. The left hand it 
is said, is preferred to the right for this purpose, 
because not being employed in working so many 
wicked actions as the right, it became more pro- 
per than the other to represent the symbol of 
justice. This hand is also placed in the counter- 
seals of his successors Richard the second, and 
Henry the fourth ; king Henry the fifth omitted 
it in his seal, and conquering France both placed 
that crown on the head, and the French sceptre 
and hand oj justice i\\ the hands of his son, king- 
Henry the sixth." 

Queen Elizabeth used the hand as one of her 
mint marks. 



aUE^N HENRIETTA MARIA, IS-'^ 



HENRIETTA MARIA, 

aUEEN OF CHARLES THE FIRST. 

Our royal martyr," says Dr. Kennet, " by 
taking a consort from the Bourbon family, did 
apparently bring* over some evils and mischiefs 
that disturbed his whole reign. For within less 
than one year, the French servants of that queen 
grew so imperious and insolent, that the king was 
forced to discharge them, and to humble them by 
a return into their own country." 

" A very sad doom it was certainly to the 
French,*' says L'Estrange in his annals of king 
Charles, " but as the animadversion was ex- 
tremely severe, so their offences were in like 
degree heinous. The bishop of Mende, the 
queen's almoner, stood charged for putting in- 
tolerable scorn upon, and making religion itself 
do penance, by enjoining her Majesty, under the 
notion of penance, to go barefoot, to spin, and 
to wait upon her family servants at their ordi- 
nary repasts, to walk on foot in the mire on a 
rainy morning, from Somerset House to St. 
James's ; her confessor, mean while, like Lucifer 
himself, riding by her in his coach ; but, which 
is worst of all, to make a progress to Tyburn, 
there to present her devotions for the depaited 



13(3 llLNRlEi?rA MARIA, 

souls of the Papists, who had been executed at 
that place, on account of the Gunpowder Trea- 
son, and other enormous crimes. A most impi- 
ous piaculary, whereof the king said acutely, that 
the action can have no greater invective than the 
relation. The other sex were accused of crimes 
of another nature, whereof Madam St. George 
was, as in dignity of office, so in guilt, the prin- 
cipal ; culpable she was in many particulars, but 
her most notorious and unpardonable fault was, 
her beinof an accursed instrument of some unkind- 
ness between the king and queen. These incen- 
diaries were cashiered, the queen, who formerly 
shewed so much waspish protervity, soon fell 
into a mode of loving compliance. But though 
this renvoy of her Majesty's servants, imported 
domestic peace, yet was it attended with an ill 
aspect from France, though our king, studying" 
to preserve fair correspondence with his brother, 
sent the Lord Carleton with instructions to re- 
present a true account of the action, with all th^ 
motives to it ; but his reception was very coarse, 
])eing never admitted to audience. Louis des- 
patched Monsieur the Marshal de Bassompierre. 
as Extraordinary Ambassador to our king, to dc- 
\ mand the restitution of the queen's domesticks ; 

which he at last obtained for most of them." 
I ** It was this match," adds Dr. Kennet, *' that 

I began to corrupt our nation with French modc^ 

uluA vanities 3 which gave occasion to Mr. Prynnc 



atJEEN or CHARLES THE FIRST. 137 

to write that severe invective, called Histrio- 
mastix, against stage plays ; to betray our 
councils to the French court; to weaken the 
poor Protestants in France, by rendering ineffec- 
tual the relief of Rochelle ; nay, and to lessen 
our own trade and navigation. These ill effects, 
beyond theking's intention, raised such a jealousy 
and spread such a damp upon the English sub- 
jects, that it was unhappily turned into one of 
the unjust occasions of civil war, which indeed 
began more out of hatred to that party, than out 
of any disaffection to the king. The people 
thought themselves too much under French coun- 
sels, and a French ministry, or else, they could 
never have been drawn aside into that great 
rebellion. This interest when suspected to pre- 
vail, brought the king' into urgent difficulties; 
and in the midst of them the aid and assistance, 
which that interest offered him, did but the more 
effectually weaken him. On this side the water 
the French services betrayed him ; and on the 
other side, the French policies were at work to 
betray him." 

And, indeed, as queen Henrietta had a mighty, 
if not a supreme sway over King Charles's coun- 
cils, so did her mother, Mary de Medicis, who 
came over by her invitation, administer great 
cause of jealousy to this nation. " The people,'* 
says L' Estrange, " were generally malecontent at 
her coming, and wished her farther off. For 

T 



138 HENRIETTA MARIA, 

they did not like her train and followers, which 
had often been observed to be the sword of 
pestilence, so that she was beheld as some meteor 
of evil signification. Nor was one of these 
calamities thought more the effect of her fortune 
than inclination ; for her restless and unconstant 
spirit was prone to embroil all wheresoever she 
came. And besides, as queen Henrietta was 
extraordinary active in raising money among the 
Roman Catholics of this kingdom, to enable 
King Charles to make war against his subjects 
of Scotland, so was she extreme busy in foment- 
ing the unhappy differences between hisMajesty 
and his English Parliament." 

Sir John Reresby, in his Memoirs, asserts that 
queen Henrietta Maria was married after the 
king's death to Lord St. Alban's. " The abbess 
of an English college in Paris, whither the queen 
used to retire, would tell me,*' says Sir John, 
** that Lord Jermyn, since St. Alban's, had the 
queen greatly in awe of him, and indeed it was 
obvious that he had great interest with her con- 
cerns ; but that he was married to her, or had 
children hy her, as some have reported, I did not 
then believe, though the thing was certainly so.'* 

Madame Baviere, in her letters, says, " Charles 
the First's widow made a chuidestine marriage, 
with her Chevalier d' Honnenr, Lord St. Alban's, 
who treated her extremely ill, so that whilst she 
had not a faggot to warm herself, he had in his 



QUEEN OF CHARLES THE FIRST. 13^ 

apartment a good fire, and a sumptuous table. 
He never gave the queen a kind word, and when 
she spoke to him, he used to say, Que me veiit 
cetle femme ? 

To what a miserable state the queen was re- 
duced may be seen in the following extract from 
De Retz's Memoirs, (vol. 1. p. 261.) '' Four or 
five days before the king removed from Paris, 
I went to visit the queen of England, whom I 
found in her daughter's chamber, who hath been 
since Duchess of Orleans. At my coming in she 
said, ** You see I am come to keep Henrietta 
company. The poor child could not rise to-day 
for want of a fire." The truth is, that the car- 
dinal for six months together had not ordered her 
any money towards her pension ; that no trades- 
people would trust her for any thing ; and that 
there was not at her lodgings in the Louvre one 
single billet. You will do me the justice to sup-^ 
pose that the princess of England did not keep 
her bed the next day for want of a faggot ; but 
it was not this which the Princess of Conde meant 
in her letter. What she spoke about was, that 
some days after my visiting the queen of England, 
I remembered the condition I had found her in, 
and had strongly represented the shame of aban- 
doning her in that manner, which caused the 
Parliament to send 40,000 livres to her Majesty. 
Posterity will hardly believe that a Princess of 
England, grand-daughter of Henry the Great, 

T 2 



J 40 HENRIETTA MARIA, 

hath wanted a faggot in the month of January, 
to get oat of bed in the Louvre, and in the eyes 
of a French court. We read in histories, with 
horror, of baseness less monstrous than this ; and 
the little concern I have met with about it in 
most people's minds, has obliged me to make, I 
believe, a thousand times this reflection — that 
examples of times past move men beyond com- 
parison more than those of their own times. We 
accustom ourselves to what we see ; and I have 
sometimes told you, that I doubted whether 
Caligula's horse being made a consul would have 
surprized us so much as we imagine." 

As for the relative situations of the king 
(Charles II.)and Lord Jermyn, (afterwards St. 
Alban's) Lord Clarendon (Hist, of the Rebellion, 
vol. 3. p. 2) says that the " Marquis of Ormond 
was compelled to put himself in prison, with 
other gentlemen, at a pistole a week for his diet, 
and to walk the streets a-foot, which was no 
honourable custom in Paris, whilst the Lord 
Jermyn kept an excellent table for those who 
courted him, and had a coach of his own, and all 
other accommodations incident to the most full 
fortune ; and if the king had the most urgent 
occasion for the use but of twenty pistoles, as 
sometimes he had, he could not find credit to 
borrow it, which he often had experiment of.'* 

The Lord St. Alban's above mentioned was 
Henry Jermyn, second son of Thomas Jermyn, 



aUEEN OF CHARLES THE FIRST. 141 

of Rushbrooke, near Bury St. Edmund's, in 
Suffolk. In 1644 he was created Lord Jermyn, 
with limitation of the honour to the heirs male 
of his elder brother Thomas. In 1660 he was 
further advanced to the dignity of Earl of St. 
Alban's, and Baron of St. Edmund's Bury, 
but on his death in 1683, the earldom became 
extinct. The barony of Jermyn devolved on 
Thomas (son of his elder brother Thomas) who 
became second Lord Jermyn : he died unmarried 
in 1703. — Lord St. Alban's was master of the 
horse to Queen Henrietta Maria, and one of the 
privy council to Charles the second. In July 
1660 he was sent ambassador to the court of 
France, and in 1671 was made Lord Chamber- 
lain of his majesty's household. — " He was a man 
of no great genius," says Grammont, " he raised 
himself a considerable fortune from nothing, and 
by losing at play, and keeping a great table, 
made it appear greater than it was." "It is 
well known what a table the good man kept at 
Paris, while the king his master was starving at 
Brussels, and the queen dowager his mistress, 
lived not over well in France." 

This earl lived in London at Jermyn heuse^ 
which stood at the head of St. Alban's-street, 
Pallmall, which street and Jermyn-street had 
their names from him. 



l42 LAST MOMENTS OF PHILIP MELANCTHON, 



LAST MOMENTS OF PHILIP 
MELANCTHON.* 

JL HE nineteenth of April, 1560, was the last 
day of the mortal existence of this great reformer 
and pious christian. After the usual medical 
inquiries of the morning, he adverted to the cala- 
mitous state of the church of Christ, but intimated 
his hope that the genuine doctrine of the gospel 
would ultimately prevail, exclaiming, ** If God 
be for us who can be against us." After this he 
presented fervent supplications to heaven for the 

* Melancthon was born at Brette, a Tillage of the Palati- 
nate, on the 16th of February, 1497. In his childhood he 
! lit made an astonishing progress in the acquisition of languages. 

Jiif Luther, and his doctrines, appeared about this time, and 

;i;l| Melancthon stood forward as one of their most strenuous 

,i,t supporters ; indeed the Lutheran system was in a great 

;j!!j ! measure planned by him, and the famous instrument by 

" which it was publicly declared, called the Confession of 

Augsburg, was the production of his pen. Melancthon was 
the intimate friend of Erasmus, and Erasmus the patron of 
Holbein. This connection will account for his appearance 
in a Collection of Portraits, drawn by Holbein, of the prin- 
cipal personages in the Court of Henry the Eighth, though 
I'J" Melancthon never was in this country. An engraving of him is 

among the Holbein Heads, published by Mr. Chamberlaine, 
„ . and there is a full-length portrait of this great Reformer, 

with a facsimile of his writing, in his Life, published by the 
t' He?. F. A. Cox, London, 1815, 8vo. 



LAST MOMENTS OF PHILIP MELANCTHON. 143 

welfare of the church, and in the intervals of sleep 
conversed principally upon this subject with 
several of his visiting* friends. 

Soon after eight in the morning awaking from 
a tranquil sleep, he distinctly, though with a 
feeble voice, repeated a form of prayer which he 
had written for his own daily use. An interval 
of repose having* elapsed after repeating this 
prayer, he lifted up his eyes to heaven, and turn- 
ing to his son-in-law, he said, *^ I have been in 
the power of death, but the Lord has graciously 
delivered me." This was supposed to refer to 
some deep conflicts of mind, as he repeated the 
expression to others. When one of the persons 
who visited him said, " There is now no con- 
demnation to them that are in Christ Jesus," 
he soon added, " Christ is made to us wisdom, 
righteousness, sanctification, and redemption." 
" Let him that glorieth glory in the Lord.'' 

The coldness of death was now creeping over 
him, but his mental faculties continued unim- 
paired to the very last breath of mortal existence. 
Having expressed a wish to hear some passages 
from the Old and New Testaments, his ministerial 
attendants read the 24th, 25th and 26th Psalms; 
the 53d chapter of Isaiah ; the 7th chapter of 
John, the 5th of the Romans, and many other 
passages. The saying of John respecting the 
son of God, he said was perpetually in his mind, 
" the world knew him not but as many as 



144 LAST MOMENTS OF PHILIP MELANCTHON. 

received him, to them gave he power to become 
the sons of God, even to them that believe on 
his name." 

Upon being- asked by his son-in-law if he would 
have any thing- else, he replied in these emphatic 

words, " NOTHING ELSE — BUT HEAVEN !" and 

requested that he mig^ht not be any further inter- 
rupted. Soon afterwards he made a similar 
request, begging those around him, who were 
endeavouring with officious kindness to adjust 
his clothes, "not to disturb his delightful repose.'' 
After some time his friends united with the 
Minister present in solemn prayer, and several 
passages of scripture, in which he was known 
always to have expressed peculiar pleasure were 
read, such as '* Let not your heart be troubled, 
ye believe in God, believe also in me." — " In 
my Father's house are many mansions." — ** My 
sheep hear my voice, and I know them, and they 
follow me ;" particularly tlie fifth chapter of 
Romans, and the triumphant close of the eighth 
chapter, commencing " If GoD be for us, who 
can be against us?" Many other parts of scrip- 
ture were recited, and the last word he uttered 
was the German particle of affirmation, la, in 
reply to one of his friends, who had inquired if 
he understood him while reading. The last 
motion which his friends who surrounded him to 
the number of at least twenty, could discern, was 
a slight motion of the countenance which was 



HOUSE OF COMMONS. 145 

peculiar to him when deeply affected with religi- 
ous joy 1 — " Mark the perfect man and behold 
the upright, for the end of that man is peace !" 
At length, " in the midst of solemn vows and 
supplications," at a quarter before seven, in the 
evening, at the age of sixty-three, he gently 
breathed his last. No distractions of mind, no 
foreboding terrors of conscience agitated this 
attractive scene. His chamber was ** privileged 
beyond the common walks of virtuous life — quite 
in the verge of heaven" — and he expired, like a 
wave scarcely undulating to the evening zephyr 
of an unclouded summer sky. It was a " depar- 
ture" — a " sleep" — " the earthly house of this 
tabernacle was dissolved." 



HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

A CONSIDERABLE number of treatises 
were written in the middle and latter end of the 
seventeenth century, and a few in the beginning 
of the eighteenth, respecting the period at which 
the House of Commons asserted that indepen- 
dence which it is so material to the security and 
happiness of the country it should possess, and 
obtained that share in the legislature it now 

u 



146 HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

enjoys ; but the writers on both sides,* eager in 
the maintenance of the cause they espoused, and 

* SeTcral of these were men remarkable for their talents 
and learnipg : among whom were Petyt, Tyrrel, Sir Robert 
Filmer, Dr. Brady, Prynne, Rymer, &c. &c. 

Petyt and Prynne wire keepers of the Records in the 
Tower ; and Rymer, who was the king's Historiographer, 
had a warrant not only to search the Records in every ofl&ce 
in the kingdom, but to make copies of such as he should 
select for publication. How diligent he was in using this 
authority is evident from the invaluable collection of Records, 
&c. published by him, and from a large collection of others 
in manuscript, now in the Museum. 

Petyt makes a direct charge, and not unfounded, against 
Prynne, for an intended omission of a reference to the Rolls 
of Parliament (2d Hen. V. p. 2. No. 10.) in the Abridg. 
ment of the Rolls made by Sir Robert Cotton, and printed by 
Prynne. 

Even Sir Robert Atkyns, a man eminently distinguished 
for his integrity and learning, as well as for his de^^p research 
into the ancient History of Parliament, who had been a Judge 
of the Common Pleas, and was afterwards Chief Baron of 
the Exchequer and Speaker of the House of Lords, in his 
learned and elaborate argument in the year 1680, in the case 
of an information by the Attorney General against Williams, 
Speaker of the House of Commons, in asserting the antiquity 
of that House, fell into some mistakes, from not having re- 
sorted to the original records. He states, and insists much 
on it, that the Speaker of the House of Commons, Sir Thomas 
Hungerford, 51 Edwardlll. was Speaker of the Parlia^ 
ment ; whereas the words in the Record are, " Monsieur 
Thomas do Hungerford, Chivaler, q'i avoit les Paroles pur 
Ics Communes d' Engleterrc." Rolls of Pari. vol. ii. p. 374, a. 
In the firiit of Richard the Second, the Speaker, Sir Robert 



HOUSE OF COMMONS, 147 

taking" advantage of the scanty means the public 
had of knowing what was contained in the early 
Rolls of Parliament* and other ancient records, 
suppressed from partiality and interested zeal, 
much of the information themselves possessed, 
which rendered of little use to the public an in- 
quiry that might otherwise have been attended 
with considerable advantage. 

It might be supposed indeed, that when men 
so remarkable for diligence and learning, as 
Prynne and Petyt, (w ho were both keepers of the 
records in the Tower, among which are most of 
the Rolls of Parliament, and all the Claus Rolls) 
took opposite sides of the controversy, about the 

says again, was termed the Speaker oj the Parliament ; the 
words in the Record are, Mons. Pere de la Mare Chivaler 
q'avoit les Paroles de Par la Commune." — Vol. iii. p. 5, 6, 
The same with respect to Sir John Bussey, 20 Richard II, 
The words in the Record are, " les Communes presenterent 
Mons. John Bussej pour lour Parlour." — Page 338, a. — 
339, b. 

* In 1766, the late Thomas Astle, Esq. was consulted by 
the Sub-Committee of the House of Lords, concerning the 
printing of the Rolls of Parliament, and in 1768, on the 
death of Mr. Blyke, Mr. Astle introduced his father-in-law, 
the Rev. Philip Morant, author of the History of Essex, to 
succeed that gentleman in preparing the Rolls for the press. 
Mr. Morant died in November, 1770, after proceeding in 
them as far as the 16th of Henry the fourth, when Mr. 
Astle was appointed by the House of Lords to carry on the 
work, which he completed in 1775. They are printed in 3i:L 
f olumes, folio, 

u 2 



148 HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

time when the Commons first formed a part of 
the legislature, whatever could have made for or 
against either side of the question would have 
been produced. And yet with all their opportu- 
nities and their eagerness for research, those who 
have attentively looked through the Rolls of 
Parliament, will find amongst them much matter 
of importance respecting the questions those 
writers discussed at different periods, to which 
neither of them referred, either in support of his 
own, or in contradiction to his opponent's argu- 
ment. Rymer was equally zealous in supporting 
the side he took, in the beginning of the last 
century. Any thing therefore having been 
brought to light by the publication of the Rolls 
of Parliament, which appears to have escaped 
the industry and research of such men, is a strong 
proof of the utility of printing those valuable 
documents. 

As early as the 46th of Edward the third, a 
statute was made, ordaining that all persons 
should be entitled to search for, and have exem- 
plifications of records, as well such as proved 
contrary to the interest of the king, as such as 
were favourable to it. 

Great and eminent men, however, not more 
distinguished by their high stations, than for their 
talents and research, stated opinions, some on 
points of magnitude, in the pursuit of mere legal 
investigations, different from those which are 



HOUSE OP COMMONS. 149 

probably entertained by such as have carefully 
perused the Parliamentary Records, which were 
printed during the reign of his late Majesty. 

In corroboration of this assertion, it may be 
sufficient to mention two opinions of Lord Coke's. 

The first that the Lords and Commons sat 
together late in the reign of king Edward the 
third* and until the Commons had a perpetual 
Speaker. The direct contrary of this opinion it 
is thought is evident from the Rolls of Parlia- 
ment. It does not appear from any Records 
that the two Houses ever sat for deliberation in 
the same assembly, from the time the Commons 
were regularly summoned in their representative 
capacity to Parliament. 

On the contrary, so early as the 1 8th of Ed- 
ward the firstjf (Rolls of Par. vol. L p. 25, a. 

♦ Some reliance was placed by his Lordship on the Trea- 
tise '^ de Modo tenendi Parliamentum ;" the authority of 
-which, if not entirely destroyed by Prynne, will not at least 
in future have much weight. — Prynne's Animadversions on 
4 Inst. p. 1. to p. 8. and p. 331. 

f In the Parliament of the 18th of Edward the first there 
-were no Citizens or Burgesses. There is a bundle of writs 
yet extant, by which this Parliament was summoned. 
They are directed to the sheriffs of several or most of the 
counties of England, by which two or three Knights were 
directed to be chosen for each county, and accordingly the 
counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge and Huntingdon^ 
and Cunberland returned each of them three Knights, and the 
other counties two each. This Parliament gave the King a 



t", 



150 HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

the earliest Roll extant) there is a Grant* to the 
king for the marriage of his eldest daughter, by 
several Peers named, " et caeteri Magnates et 
Proceres tunc in Parliamento existentes, pro se 
et Communitate totius Regni Angliae quantum 
in ipsis est ;" that is, ** and other Lords and 
Nobles for themselves and the Community of 

fifteenth of all their moveables as appears by the account of the 
same which is entered upon the Great Roll of the 23cl of that 
king, in which account we have the style of this Parliament, 
namely, " The account of the fifteenth, granted to the king 
in his 18th year, by the Archbishops, Bishops, Abbots, 
PriorSjEarls, Barons, and all others of the kingdom, assessed, 
collected, and levied," &c. 

We may here observe that the two or three Knights, 
chosen by the several counties, did represent those counties, 
and according to the form of the writ, consulted upon aad 
consented to this grant of a fifteenth. 

So also in the 22d of Edward the First there were neither 
Citizens nor Burgesses summoned to the Parliament of that 
year. On the 8th of October the king issued writs directed 
to every sherifi' in England to cause two discreet Knights to be 
chosen for each county, with full powers, " so that for de- 
fect of such powers, the business might not remain undoDC.% 
And on the following day the king issued other writs to the 
sheriffs to cause to be elected two knights more, to be added 
to the former two, making four for each county, and these 
four Knights for each county, and the Earls, Barons, and 
Great Men, on the day of their meeting gave the king a 
tenth part of all their goods. 

* This was only a grant of forty shillings for evefy 
Knight's fee.— See Rolls of Parliament, vol. 2. p. 112, a. 
hereinafter referred to in 14 of Edward III. 



HOUSE OF COMMONS. 151 

the whole kingdom of England, as much as they 
were able." In the 19th of Edward the second 
(p. 351. a.) there is a grant to the king for car- 
vying on the war with Scotland, by the Citizens, 
Burgesses, and Knights for counties, of a 
fifteenth of the moveables of the Citizens, Bur- 
gesses, and men of the counties, cities, and 
towns. 

In the 14th of Edward the second (p. 371.) 
complaint was made by the Knights, Citizens 
and Burgesses of felonies for which they besought 
a remedy : and the Record concludes " Et Con- 
cordatum est per Dominam Regem de Consilio 
Prelatorum, Comitum, Baronum, et aliorum 
Peritorum, in dicto Parliamento existentium 
quod,'' &c. that is, " and it was agreed between 
our Lord the king and the council of Prelates, 
Earls, Barons, and other great men in the 
said Parliament assembled, &c.'' 

The Entries in the sixth of Edward the third, 
1331, (to the Parliament Rolls of which year Lord 
Coke particularly refers for proof of the Lords and 
Commons then sitting together) which appear to 
bear on the point in question, are in vol. ii. p. 66, 
At the first meeting at Westminster, the Prelates 
by themselves, and the Knights for counties by 
themselves, deliberated on the business opened 
to them at the beginning of the Parliament, and 
answered by advising the king not to go in 
person to Ireland to quell the rebellion there. 



152 HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

And in the third meeting" in that year at York, 
when a statement was made by Geoffrey \e 
Scroop, in the presence of the king", and " de 
touz les Grantz en plein Parlement," of all the 
Lords in full Parliament ; and afterwards it was 
agreed by the king and the whole in full Par- 
liament, that certain Bishops and Peers named, 
should meet on the business in discussion by 
themselves, the other Prelates, Earls and Barons, 
and the Proxies by themselves ; and the Knights 
of the shire and Commons by themselves. The 
business was discussed accordingly during some 
days ; after which the Commons had leave to 
return to their counties, and the Prelates, Earls, 
and Barons, were to remain till the day following. 
In the 13th of Edward the third (vol. 2. 
p. 104.) a grant was made to the king, *^ par les 
Grantz," of a tenth of the grain of their demesne 
lands, and of their fleeces, with certain reserva- 
tions. The Commons, however, after represent- 
ing their having heard the statement of the king's 
necessities, the extent of which they were aware 
of, and were willing to relieve as they had always 
done ; said, that as the aid must be a great one 
they dated not assent to it without consulting* 
with *< les Communes de leur Pais," the Com- 
mons of their counties. And they desired 
another Parliament to be summoned. At which 
subsequent meeting, in the same year, (p. 107. 
b.) the occasion of summoning the Parliament 



HOUSE OP COMMONS. 153 

was explained to the Commons, on which they 
said they would deliberate. They afterwards 
proposed to grant 30,000 sacks of wool on certain 
conditions, which if not agreed to by the king, 
the aid was to be withheld. The Earls and 
Barons the same day granted for themselves and 
the Peers of the land who held by Barony, the 
tenth sheaf, the tenth fleece, and the tenth lamb. 

In the 14th of Edward the third, (p. 112, a.) 
grants were made by the Prelates, Earls, and 
Barons, for themselves and all their tenants, 
and by the Knights of shires for themselves, and 
for the commons of the land, of the ninth sheaf, 
the ninth fleece, and the ninth lamb ; and by the 
Citizens and Burgesses of a real ninth of their 
property ; and merchants not inhabiting cities 
and towns, and other people who reside in 
forests and wastes, and who do not live by their 
gains or their flocks, a fifteenth of all their pro- 
perty according to the true value. 

In the 15th of Edward the third (p. 127, a.) 
on occasion of a Grant made to the king in a 
former Parliament, to enable him to purchase 
friends and allies for the recovery of his rights, 
havino^ not been as available as it ou»-ht to have 
been, it was proposed that consideration should 
be had, ** par touz les Grantz et Communes," '* by 
all the Lords and Commons," how the grant 
should be made most profitable to the king, and 
least burthensome to the people, ** les Grantz de 

X 



154 HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

par eux, et les Chivalers des Counteez, Citeyens, 
^t Burgeys de par eux," that is, " the Lords by 
themselves, and the Knig-hts for counties, Citizens 
and Burgesses by themselves." 

In the 17th of Edward the third,(p. 136,a.)"les 
ditz Prelatz et Grantz assemblez en la Chambre 
Blanche (the court of requests)responderent,"&c. 
(p. 136, 6.) '' Et pour vindrent les Chivalers 
des Counteez et les Communes et responderent par 
Monsieur William Trussell en la dite Chambre 
Blanche qi' en Presence de nostre Signeur le Roi et 
les ditz Prelates," &c. that is, " on vi^hich day the 
said Prelates and Lords assembled in tbe Chambre 
Blanche, answered,'' &c. " And then came the 
Knights for counties, and the Commons, and 
answered by Monsieur William Trussell in the 
said Chambre Blanche^ and in the presence of our 
Lord the king, and the said Prelates,** &c. 

There can be little doubt but that this William 
Trussell was Speaker of the House of Commons. 
He is styled by Higden, who wrote in the reign 
of Edward the third, in his " Polychronicon," 
" Procurator of the Parliament,'* when he, in 
the name of all the men in the land of England, 
renounced allesfiance to kinof Edward the second 
in the last year of that king's reign. 

The Speaker of the Comm6ns was indeed 
styled <* Parlour and Procurator," so late as the 
first of Henry the fourth. (Rolls of Pari, vol 3. 
p. 424, b.) 



HOUSE OF COMMONS. Ii55 

In the 18th of Edward the third, when the 
king was going to France for the recovery of 
his rights, the grants by the Lords and Com- 
mons were quite distinct ; the former to accom- 
pany him in the war, " les ditz grantz granter- 
ent de passer et lour aventurer ovesque lui ; the 
Commons granted, for the same cause, two fif- 
teenths of the commonalty, and two tenths of the 
cities and boroughs. (Rolls of Pari. vol. 2. 
p. 150, b.) 

There are other grants in this reign by the 
Commons ; 20th of Edward the third, (p. 159, b.) 
and 21st of Edward the third, (p. 166.) In the 
22d of Edward the third, (p. 200.) the Com- 
mons grant an aid, after several days consider- 
ation, but under certain conditions. In the 29th 
of Edward the third, (p. 265, b.) there is a 
separate grant by the Commons. 

In the 40th of Edward the third, after the 
occasion of summoning the Parliament had been 
explained, the Lords and Commons were direct- 
ed to depart, and to meet again on the day follow- 
ing, the Lords " en la Chambre Blanche," and 
the Commons in the painted Chamber. (Vol. 2.. 
p. 289.; 

In the 42d of Edward the third (p. 227, a.) a 
Petition of the Commons, and the answers there- 
to, were read in the Court of Requests, in the 
presence of the King, Lords, and Commons; and 
a statement was made to the king in this Parlia^- 



156 HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

ment '^ par les Grantz et Communes," by the 
Lords and Commons, all the former and many 
of the latter having dined with the king ; after 
which John de la Lee was put on his defence 
before them in the said place. 

In the 50th of Edward the third, (p. 283.) 
the Commons profess the utmost loyalty and 
goodwill to the king ; but add, that if he had 
faithful ministers about him, he must be rich 
enough to do without subsidies, especially con- 
sidering the sums of money brought into the 
kingdom by the ransoms of the king of France, 
the king of Scotland, &c. They then proceed 
to the impeachment of a considerable number of 
persons. 

And in the 51st of Edward the third, (p. 363.^ 
on the opening of the Parliament, the Commons 
were directed by the king to retire to their 
ancient place of meeting, in the Chapter House 
of the abbey of Westminster. To this record 
Lord Coke himself refers. 

It will be seen in the note p. 146, that Sir 
Thomas Huiigerford is mentioned as Speaker of 
the House of Commons ; and in the first of 
Richard the second, that Peter de la Mare was 
Speaker of the Commons. 

The second opinion of Lord Coke's to which 
allusion lias already been made, is, that if an act 
mentions only that the king enacts, and the Lords 
assent, without naming the Commons, the omis- 



HOUSE OF COMMONS, 157 

sion cannot be supplied by any intendment. 
Lord Coke expressly says, if an act be penned, 
that ^* the king with the assent of the Lords," or 
*^ with the assent of the Commons,'' it is no act 
of Parliament, for three ought to assent to it, the 
King, the Lords, and the Commons ; or otherwise 
it is not an act of Parliament ; and by the record 
of the act it is expressed which of them gave their 
assent ; and that excludes all other intendments 
that any other gave their assent. (Lord Coke, 
8th Report, p. 20, b.) 

How dangerous it would be to decide on the 
validity of our statutes, on such ground, will be 
seen by a single instance. 

The act of the first of Edward the sixth against 
exporting horses without a licence, after the reci- 
tal in the preamble, runs thus ; ** For remedy 
whereof, be it therefore enacted by our sovereign 
lord the king, and by the Commons in this 
present Parliament assembled, and by the autho- 
rity of the same," — the Lords being not once 
mentioned in the statute, which is accurately 
printed from the original act. 

Now it appears by the Lords' Journals, (vol, 1. 
p. 303, a,) that this act had not only the assent 
of the House of Lords, but that it had its origin 
in that House, where it passed unanimously, 
(p. 306, a.) was returned from the Commons 
with a proviso, which was agreed to by the 
Lords, (p. 312, a.) and is in the Journals among 
the acts passed that session, (p. 313, a.) 



158 HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

There has not been found in the Records, the 
slightest foundation for an opinion, that there was 
any election of representatives of the Commons 
earlier than the 49th of Henry the third, 1 265, 
except in the entry respecting the borough of St. 
Alban's, so often referred to by different writers. 
It is, however, certain that those who held m 
capite of the king, were a necessary part of the 
great council, as early as king John's time, when 
aids and escuage were to be granted to the 
sovereign. 

In the 52d of Henry the third, 12G8, a parlia- 
ment, or more properly a great council, of Barons 
only, was held at Marlborough, where the great 
charter was confirmed. The members of this 
parliament or council were such of the great 
Barons and Tenants in capite, as the king pleased 
to summon thereto. 

King Edward the first, at Easter, 1276, held 
a parliament at Westminster, of Archbishops, 
Bishops, Abbots, Priors, Earls, Barons, and 
Commons, wherein many excellent laws were 
made, called the Statutes of Westminster the first. 
It is proper to mention that the Commons here 
spoken of, were not Knights of shires, or Bur- 
gesses, but the smaller Tenants who held in chief 
of the king, or Tenants in capite. 

It is generally said by our Historians, that the 
first time that any Citizens, or Burgesses were 
summoned to parliament by the king's authority, 
was in the 23d year of king Edward tl>e first, 



HOUSE OP COMMONS, 159 

1294, but the editors of the Parliamentary History 
(vol. 1. p. 87 J have shewn that the same king, 
in the eleventh year of his reign, 1283, called a 
parliament to be holden at Shrewsbury, on occa- 
sion of taking prisoner, David, brother of Lle- 
wellyn, prince of Wales, the latter having lately 
been killed in battle. 

The king in summoning this Parliament was 
more explicit than he had ever been before. 
The writs of summons are still extant. The first 
is directed to the Barons to meet the king at 
Shrewsbury, on the 30th of September. The 
second writ is directed to the sheriffs of every 
county in England, to cause to be chosen two 
Knights for the commonalty of the county, as 
also a third directed to the several cities and 
boroughs mentioned, and a fourth writ to the 
Judges. 

Mr. Tyrrell observes, that " neither Prynne 
nor Dr. Brady, with all their diligence, have 
taken any notice of these writs to summon this 
Parliament. 

** The writs were directed to all the Earls and 
Barons by name, to the number of 110; but the 
writs to the cities and boroughs are more remark- 
able, especially as they are the first upon record, 
requiring the attendance of the Knights of the 
shire, Citizens, and Burgesses, except those 
issued in the name of the late king Henry the 
third." 



160 HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

The cities and boroughs to which these writ^; 
were directed were the following : — Bristol, 
Canterbury, Carlisle, Colchester, Chester, 
Exeter, Grimsby, Hereford, Lynn, Lincoln, 
Newcastle (Tyne,) Norwich, Northampton, 
Nottingham, Scarborough, Shrewsbury, Win- 
chester, Worcester, Yarmouth, (Norfolk) and 
York. 

In the 23d of Edward the third, 1294, a Par- 
liament was summoned to meet at Westminster, 
and writs were sent to the several sheriffs of 
England to cause to be elected two Knights for 
each county, two Citizens for each city, and two 
Burgesses for each borough, to be at the said 
Parliament, to consent and agree to such things, 
as the Earls, Barons, and Peers of the Realm 
should ordain ; and from this year is to be dated 
the first regular general summons of Knights, 
Citizens, and Burgesses to Parliament. It is 
proper to observe that in this Parliament, the 
Earls, Barons, and Knights of the several coun- 
ties, sat, treated, and consulted altogether, and 
gave the king an eleventh part of all their move- 
able goods ; the Citizens and Burgesses acted 
separately, and granted a seventh part of all their 
moveables, 

Li the more early period of the history of the 
House of Commons, M^hen the Parliament fre- 
quently sat only for a single day, the whole 
business being to grant the king a subsidy, it is 



HOUSE OF COMMONS. 161 

probable that the Speaker might with more pro- 
priety be called the chairman, for sometimes one 
of the members was appointed to the chair, and 
sometiaies another ; some resolutions were or- 
dered to be made by one member, and others to 
be reported by another. 

In the 19th of Edward the second, 1325, 
Wi<liam Trussell was in the chair, when Hugh 
Spenser the younger was accused of Treason, in 
Parliament. 

In the 6th of Edward the Third, the Com- 
mons made answer to the king by Sir Geoffrey 
le Scroop, and it was agreed by the king, 
and the whole in full Parliament, that cer- 
tain Bishops and Peers named, should meet on 
the business in discussion by themselves ; the 
other Prelates, Earls, and Barons, and the 
Proxies* by themselves ; and the Knights of the 

* Proxies in Parliament is a privilege appropriated to the 
Lords only ; the first instance of a Proxy that occurs in the 
History of the English Parliament, is in the reign of Edward 
the first. 

In a Parliament at Westminster in the reign of Edward the 
second, the bishops of Durham and Carlisle were allowed to 
send their Proxies to Parliament. 

In the early period of the History of Parliament, the Lords 
were not obliged to make Barons only their Proxies as the 
custom now is ; the Bishops and Parliamentary Abbots 
usually gave their letters of proxy to Prebendaries, Parsons, 
and Canons ; but since the first year of king Henry the 
eighth, there appear in the journals no Proxies but such as 
were Lords of Parliameat, 

Y 



i62 HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

sliires and Commons by themselves. Iii the 
fifty first of the same king Sir Thomas Hunger- 
fore was Speaker of the Commons. 

In the first of Richard the Second, 1377, Sir 
Peter de la Mare, knight of the shire for the 
county of Hereford, was Speaker of the Com- 
mons, as he had been in the last Parliament 
but one of Edward the Third. In the fifth of 
the former king, 1382, Sir Richard Waldegrave 
was chosen by the Commons to be their Speaker, 
who made an excuse, and desired to be discharg- 
ed. He is the first Speaker that appears upon 
record to have made an excuse, but the king 
commanded him, upon his allegiance, to accept 
the ofiUce, seeing he had been chosen by the 
Commons. 

In the fifth of Henry the fourth, 1404, Sir 
Arnold Savage being chosen Speaker, after 
making an excuse, requested the king, in the 
name of the Commons, that they might freely 
make complaint of any thing amiss in the govern- 
In the 35th of king Edward the third, 1360, the follow- 
ing Pecrescs were summoned by writ to Parliament, to ap- 
pear there by their Proxies, namely, Mary, Countess of 
Norfolk ; Eleanor, Countess of Ormond ; Anna, Baroness 
Despcnser ; Philippa, Countess of March ; Joanna, Baron. 
ess Fitzwaltcr ; Agneta, Countess of Pembroke ; Mary de 
St. Paul, Countess of Pembroke ; Margaret, Baroness de 
Roos ; Matilda, Countess of Oxford ; Catherine, Countess 
of Athol. These ladies were called ad colloquium tt tracfn. 
turn by their Proxies. 



JIOUSE OF COMMONS. IGS^ 

ment, and that the king would not by the sinis- 
ter information of any person take offence at 
that of which they should complain, which 
petition was granted by the king. 

In the seventh year of the same king, 1406^ 
Sir John Tiptoft being chosen Speaker, made an 
excuse on account of his youtli, which not being 
accepted, he requested that if any writing was 
delivered by the Commons, and they should desire 
to have it again, to amend or alter any thing 
therein, it might be restored to them, which was 
granted. Whilst he was Speaker, he signed and 
sealed in the name of the Commons the deed 
which entailed the crown upon Henry the 
fourth. This young Speaker is said to have 
taken more upon him, and to have spoken more 
boldly and freely to the King and the Lords, than 
any before him, insomuch that his example beings 
followed, the king gave a check to it, when 
Thomas Chaucer, Esq. was chosen Speaker in 
his room. 

In the 20th of Henry the sixth, 1450, the 
Commons presented Sir John Popham to the 
king as their Speaker, who making an excuse, it 
was received, and he was discharged, on which 
the Commons presented William Tresham, who 
had twice before been Speaker,who was accepted. 

In the 3 1st of the same king, 1453, Thomas 
Thorpe, Esq. Speaker of the House of Commons 
was arrested in execution at the suit of the 



164 HOUSE OF COMMONS. 

Duke of York during- the vacation between two 
sessions, and the opinion of the judges being* de- 
manded by the Lords, they refused to judge of the 
liberties of Parliament as not belonging to their 
jurisdiction, whereupon the Lords without their 
advice adjudged that the Speaker was not entitled 
to any privilege, which, on being signified to the 
Commons, and also the king's pleasure being 
made known to them that they should choose 
another Speaker, they chose Sir Thomas Charle- 
ton. 

In the loth of Henry the eighth, 1523, Sir 
Thomas More, Chancellor of the Duchy of 
Lancaster, was chosen Speaker of the House 
of Commons. He made the usual protestation 
for himself, and prayed that if any member 
should in debate speak more largely than he 
ought, that he might be pardoned by the king, 
which was granted. 

In the first year of queen Elizabeth, 1559, Sir 
Thomas Gargrave was chosen Speaker ; in his 
speech to the queen he made four requests, 
namely first, free access to her majesty ; second- 
ly, for liberty of speech ; thirdly, privilege from 
arrests ; and fourthly, that his mistakes might 
not prejudice the house. 

In Scotland the system of representation was 
not adopted till the reign of James the first, of 
that kingdom, in 1427. By an act of that year 
it was enacted, that " the king with consent of the 



MOSAIC PAINTING. IG5 

whole council g-enerally has statute and ordained 
that the small Barons and free Tenants need not to 
come to Parliaments nor general councils, so that 
of each sheriffdom there be sent, chosen at the 
head court of the sheriffdom, two or more wise 
men after the larg-eness of the sheriffdom, &c." — 
Scottish Acts printed in 1682, p. 30. 

In Scotland the Lords and Commons unques- 
tionably sat in the same House till the Union of 
the two kingdoms, and the Commissioner who 
represented the sovereign, debated with them 
from the throne, although he had the power^ 
which he sometimes used, of adjourning the 
assembly when he pleased. 



MOSAIC PAINTING. 

JjIOSAIC is a representation of painting by 
means of small pebbles, or shells of sundry colours, 
and, of late years, with pieces of glass coloured 
at pleasure ; it is an ornament of much beauty, 
and lasts for ages, and is mostly used in pave- 
ments and floors. 

The term Mosaic is derived from the latin 
musivum, and ought to be pronounced musaic. 
It is odd enough that many persons have really 
fancied they could trace the etymology of this 
word to the name of the great Jewish legislator. 



166 MOSAIC PAINTING. 

It is well observed by Wotton that Mosaic has 
*' long life ;'' and we have much to lament that 
the art was not practised in ancient Rome with 
the perfection it has attained in modern Rome. 
Had Mosaic been applied to exact imitations of 
the pictures of Apelles, Zeuxis, and the great 
artists of ancient times, we should still have been 
the contemporaries of every fine genius, and a 
new polish had renewed their fading beauties, 
and restored them to immortal youth. 

Pliny has proved that the Greeks first prac- 
tised Mosaic, and notices a curious work of the 
kind which was called " the unswept piece." 
This singular performance exhibited to the eye, 
crumbs of bread and other things which fall from 
a table, so naturally imitated, that the eye was 
perfectly deceived, and it looked as if the pave- 
ment had never been swept ; it was formed of 
small shells, painted of different colours. 

There were several pieces of Mosaic found in 
Herculaneum; one much resembled a Turkey 
carpet. The ancients probably gave in Mosaic 
some historical subjects, for there was also dis- 
covered the Rape of Europa, composed of small 
flints. 

Mosaic has been practised in Italy two thou- 
sand years ; the manner of working it in that 
country is by copying in very small pieces of 
marble of different colours, every thing which a 
picture can be expected to imitate. Instead of 



MOSAIC PAINTING. 167 

common stones, too difficult to collect for so 
great a work, or which would require too much 
time to prepare and polish, the Italian artists 
sometimes have recourse to paste, that is to a 
composition of glass and enamel, which after 
passing through a crucible takes a brilliant 
colour. All these pieces are inlaid, and very 
thin, and their length is proportioned to their 
slenderness. They sometimes inlay a piece not 
thicker than a hair, and the artist afterwards 
arranges these pieces according to the colours 
and design of the picture before him. They are 
easily fixed in the stucco or plaster of Paris 
placed to receive them which soon hardens and 
dries. Such works are so solid that they are 
capable of resisting the assaults of time through 
ages. The Mosaic of St. Mark at Venice has 
existed above 900 years in perfect splendour and 
beauty. 

Several fine pieces of Roman Mosaic work 
have been discovered in England in the last and 
preceding centuries, particularly at Woodchester 
in Gloucestershire, and at Horkstow, in Lincoln- 
shire, both of which have been elaborately describ- 
ed and engraved by the late Samuel Lysons, Esq. 
Others have been found at Winterton, Roxby, 
Scampton, and Denton, in the county of Lincoln • 
in Yorksliire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, 
Northamptonshire, &c. &c. 

Sir Chrifitopher Wren intended to have beau- 



J68 KING EGBERT. 

tified the inside of the Cupola of St. Paul's 
Cathedral, instead of painting- it in the manner 
in wliich it now appears, with the raore durable 
ornament of Mosaic work, as is nobly executed in 
the Cupola of St. Peter*s at Rome. For this 
purpose he intended to have procured from 
Italy four of the most eminent artists in that 
profession ; but as this art was a great novelty in 
England, and not generally understood, the plan 
did not receive the encouragement it deserved. 
It was thought also that the expense would prove 
too great, and the time very long in the execu- 
tion ; but though these and all other objections 
were fully answered, yet this excellent design 
was no further pursued. 



KING EGBERT. 



J.T is a generally received opinion, sanction- 
ed by nearly every modern historian, that Egbert 
king of the West Saxons, having dissolved the 
Heptarchy, about the year 828, became the first 
sole monarch of England. This is, however, one of 
those historical points which it is more easy to 
assert than to confirm. There were undoubt- 
edly many chief monarchs of the heptarchy, 
both before and after the time of Egbert, that 
sovereign himself having been one of those chief 



KING EGBERT. 169 

monarchs, but some of those petty kingdoms 
subsisted for nearly one hundred and twenty 
years after Egbert's death. That this was the 
fact is proved both by their coins and their laws. 
Several of their coins are still to be found in the 
cabinets of the curious. Thus we find that in 
the kingdom of the East Angles, king Edmund, 
called the Saint, and Ethelstan, (Guthrun the 
Danish general being so named by Alfred at 
his baptism,) coined money, the first in 857, and 
the latter in 878. The kings of Mercia coined 
money until A. D. 874, and the kings of Nor- 
thumberland till A. D. 950. In the last 
mentioned year, the kingdom of Northumber- 
land, which included all the country north of the 
Huraber, terminated, and England became one 
kingdom. It was again divided by Edwy, who 
began to reign in 959, so that Edgar may more 
justly be regarded as commencing the series of 
kings of all England. It may be proper here to 
remark that two kingdoms of the Heptarchy 
never coined any money ; these were the king- 
doms of the East Saxons and the South Saxons. 
Alfred was the first king that made a code of 
laws which was common to the whole kingdom. 
There were very few legislators among the 
Saxon Monarchs. The laws of Ethelbert, who 
died in 017, are the most ancient that we have. 
The next are those of Lothaire, 673 ; Edric, 684 ; 
and Wightred, 694 ; all of them kings of Kent. 

z 



170 KING EGBERT. 

Ina, king of the West Saxons, 688, and Offa 
king of the Mercians, 757, were the only other 
kings of the Heptarchy who formed any laws 
which have been preserved by historians. If it 
be objected that the people of the other king- 
doms could not subsist without laws suited to 
the situation of their affairs, we may observe that 
the monarchs of those kingdoms received into 
their states and adopted the laws of the kings 
already mentioned. The laws of Ina were 
received by the other kings of the Heptarchy, 
and in one of the great councils held by Offa, 
king of Mercia, there were present the king of 
the East Saxons, the king of the West Saxons, 
the king of Kent, the king of Northumberland, 
and three kings of Wales. 

Alfred having conquered the Danes at Eding- 
ton, and Guthrun their general and his princi- 
pal officers having been baptized in the church 
of AUer, near Langport, in Somersetshire, 
Alfred concluded a treaty of peace with Guth- 
run, and gave him the kingdoms of East Anglia 
and Northumberland for himself and his Danes, 
appointing the boundaries of his dominions and 
giving him laws which were agreed to and con- 
firmed by Alfred's and Guthrun' s nobles. In all 
cases which were not provided for by this treaty, 
Guthrun consented that the Danes should ob- 
serve the general laws of Alfred. This treaty 



THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 171 

was afterwards confirmed and enlarged by 
Edward the Elder, Alfred's son, with the consent 
and approbation of his and Guthrun's nobles. 



THE LATIN LANGUAGE, 

J^O sensible were the Romans of the influence 
of languag-e over national manners, that it was 
their most serious care to extend, with the pro- 
gress of their arms, the use of the latin tongue. 
The ancient dialects of Italy, the Sabine, the 
Etruscan, and the Venetian, sunk into oblivion; 
but the eastern were less docile than the western 
provinces to the voice of its victorious preceptors. 
This obvious difference marked the two portions 
of the empire with a distinction of character, 
which, though it was in some degree concealed 
during the meridian splendour of prosperity, be- 
came gradually more visible, as the shades of 
night descended upon the Roman world. The 
western countries were civilized by the same 
hands which subdued them. As soon as the 
barbarians were reconciled to obedience, their 
minds were opened to any new impressions of 
knowledge and politeness. The language of 
Virgil and Cicero, though with some inevitable 
mixture of corruption, was so universally ? iopt- 
ed in Africa, Spain, Gaul, Britain and 

z2 



172 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 

Pannonia, that the faint traces of the Punic or 
Celtic idioms were preserved only in the moun- 
tains or among" the peasants. The Celtic was 
indeed preserved in the mountains of Wales, 
Cornwall, and Armorica; and it may here be 
observed that Apuleius reproaches an African 
youth, who lived among* the populace, with the 
use of the Punic, whilst he had almost forgot 
Greek, and neither could nor would speak Latin. 
The greater part of St. Austin's congregations 
were strangers to the Punic. Education and 
study insensibly inspired the natives of the coun- 
tries just mentioned with the sentiments of 
Romans j and Italy gave fashions, as well as 
laws, to her latin provincials. They solicited with 
more ardour, and obtained with more facility, 
the freedom and honours of the state; supported 
the national dignity in letters and in arms ; and at 
length in the person of Trajan, produced an 
Emperor whom the Scipios would not have dis- 
owned for their countryman. Spain alone pro- 
duced Columella, the Senecas, Lucan, Martial, 
and Quinctilian. 

The situation of the Greeks was very different 
from that of the barbarians. The former had 
been long since civilized and corrupted. They 
had too much taste to relinquish their language, 
and too much vanity to adopt any foreign insti- 
tutions. Still preserving the prejudices, after 
they had lost the virtues of their ancestors, they 



THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 173 

affected to despise the unpolished manners of the 
Roman conquerors, whilst they were compelled 
to respect their superior wisdom and pov/er. 
The Greeks seemed to be entirely ignorant that 
the Romans had any good writers ; and it is 
believed that there is not a single Greek critiC;, 
from Dionysius to Libanius, who mentions Yirgii 
or Horace. Nor was the influence of the 
Grecian language and sentiments confined to the: 
narrow limits of that once celebrated country. 
Their empire, by the progress of colonies and 
conquests, had been diffused from the Adriatic 
to the Euphrates and the Nile. Asia was 
covered with Greek cities, and the long reign of 
the Macedonian kings, had introduced a silent 
revolution into Syria and Egypt. In their 
pompous courts, those princes . united the 
elegance of Athens with the luxury of the East, 
and the example of the court was imitated, at an 
humble distance, by the higher ranks of their 
subjects. Such was the general division of the 
Roman empire into the Latin and Greek 
languages. 

To these we may add a third distinction for 
the body of the natives in Syria, and especially 
in Egypt. The use of their ancient dialects, 
by secluding them from the commerce of man> 
kind, checked the improvements of those bar- 
barians. The slothful effeminacy of the former, 
exposed them to the contempt ; the sullen feroci- 



174 BR. HERSCHEL. 

ousness of the latter, excited the aversion of the 
conquerors. Those nations had submitted to 
the Roman power, but they seldom desired or 
deserved the freedom of the city ; and it was 
remarked, that more than two hundred and 
thirty years elapsed after the ruin of the Ptole- 
mys, before an Egyptian was admitted into the 
Senate of Rome, the first instance of which 
happened under the reign of Septimius Severus. 



Dr. HERSCHEL. 



J.N the History of Doncaster, written by Dr. 
Miller, we find the following account of the 
early years of this eminent astronomer : — 

" It will ever be a gratifying reflection to me,'* 
says Dr. Miller, " that I was the first person by 
whose means this extraordinary genius was drawn 
from a state of obscurity. About the year 1760, 
as I was dining with the officers of the Durham 
militia, at Pontefract, one of them informed me, 
that they had a young German in their band, as 
a performer on the hautboy, who had been only 
a few months in this country, and yet spoke 
English almost as well as a native ; that exclu- 
sively of the hautboy, he was an excellent per- 
former on the violin, and if I chose to repair to 
^mother room, he should entertain me with a solo* 



DR. HERSCHEL. 175 

I did so, and Mr. Herschel executed a solo of 
Giordani's in a manner that surprised me. After- 
wards I took an opportunity to have a little 
private conversation with him, and requested to 
know if he had engaged himself to the Durham 
militia for any long" period ? he answered, " No, 
only from month to month.'* Leave them then, 
said I, and come and live with me; I am a 
single man, and think we shall be happy to- 
gether; doubtless your merit will soon entitle 
you to a more eligible situation. He consented 
to my request, and came to Doncaster. It is 
true, at that time, my humble mansion consisted 
but of two rooms; however, poor as I was, my 
cottage contained a small library of well chosen 
books ; and it must appear singular, that a young 
German, who had been so short a time in Eng- 
land, should understand even the peculiarities of 
our language so well, as to adopt Dean Swift for 
his favourite author. I took an early opportunity 
of introducing him at Mr. Copley's concert; and 
he presently began 

" Untwisting all the charms that tie 
" The hidden soul of harmony.'* 

For never before had we heard the concertos of 
Corelli, Geminiani, and Avison, or the overtures 
of Handel, performed more chastely, or more 
according to the original intention of the com- 
posers, than by Mr. Herschel. I soon lost my 
companion ; his fume was presently spread abroad, 



176 DR. HER8C11EJL. 

he had the offer of scholars, and was solicited to 
lead the public concerts at Wakefield and Halifax. 
" About this time a new organ, for the parish 
church of Halifax, was built by Snetzler; which 
was opened with an oratorio, by the late well- 
known Joah Bates. Mr. Herschel, and six others, 
were candidates for the organist's place. They 
drew lots how they were to perform in rotation. 
Herschel drew the third lot — ^the second perform- 
er was Mr. (afterwards Dr.) Wainwright, of 
Manchester, whose finger was so rapid, that old 
Snetzler^the organ builder, ran about the church 
exclaiming : — " Te tevil, te tevil, he run over te 
keys like one cat, he will not give my pipes room 
for to shpeak !*' During Mr. Wainwright's per- 
formance, I was standing in the middle aile 
with Herschel ; — What chance have you, said I, 
to follow this man ? He replied, " 1 do not know, 
I am sure fingers will not do.*' On which he 
ascended the loft, and produced from the organ 
such an uncommon fullness, such a volume of 
slow, solemn harmony, that I could by no means 
account for the effect. After this short extempo- 
rary effusion, he finished with the old hundredth 
psalm, which he played better than his opponent. 
" Aye, aye," cried old Snetzler, " tish is very 
goot, very goot inteet ; I will luf tish man, for 
he gives my pipes room for to shpeak V' Hav- 
ing afterwards asked Herschel by what means, 
in the beginning of his performance he produced 



PARODIES, 177 

such an uncommon effect? he replied, "I told 
you fing'ers would not do,'* and producing two 
pieces of lead from his pocket, *' one of these," 
said he, " I placed on the lowest key of the organ, 
and the other upon the octave above ; thus by 
accommodating the harmony, I produced the 
effect of four hands instead of two. However, 
as my leading the concert on the violin, is their 
principal object, they will give me the place in 
preference to a better performer on the organ ; 
but I shall not stay long here, for 1 have the offer 
of a superior situation at Bath, which offer I shall 
accept/' 



PARODIES. 



X HE present use of this word is strictly con- 
sonant with that of the ancients, who applied it 
to the giving a ridiculous turn to passages in 
Homer and the tragic Poets. There are many 
in Aristophanes. One of the happiest modern 
instances is the parody of the speech of Sarpe- 
don to Glaucus in the Rape of the Lock. The 
genealogy of Agamemnon's sceptre is also 
parodied in the same poem, canto 5, v. 87. 



A a 



173 MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. 



MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. 

J.N the Mosaic lavy the Israelites were com- 
manded not to cut themselves for the dead. The 
original Hebrew has, however a more extensive 
meaning- than cutting, and includes all assaults 
on their own persons, arising from immoderate 
grief, such as beating the breasts, tearing the 
hair, &c. which were commonly practised by 
the heathen, who had no hope of a resurrection, 
particularly by the Egyptians, which might 
afford a particular reason for the Mosaic prohi- 
bition. We may also observe, that among the 
Romans, it was ordained by one of the laws of 
the twelve tables, " Let not women tear their 
faces, or make lamentations at funerals,'' which 
proves that this v^^as the custom with the 
Romans, previously to making this law. No 
doubt the law itself was immediately borrowed 
from the Athenian code, of which it is a literal 
translation. 

The Priests of Baal, (\ Kings, ch. 18, v. 28.) 
assaulted themselves with knives and lances, 
which was indeed equivalent to cutting them- 
selves. Nor was this frantic custom confined to 
the Priests of Baal; the Gcdli, and other 
devotees of the Syrian goddess, cut their arms. 



GARRICK. 119 

and scourged each others backs, according to 
Lucian. ** Baal's Priests", says Dr. Leland, 
** were wont to cut and slash themselves with 
knives and lances. The same thing was prac- 
tised in the worship of Isis, according to Hero- 
dotus, and of Bellona, as Lucan mentions. 
Many authors take notice of the solemnities 
of Cybele, the mother of the gods, whose priests 
in their sacred processions, made hideous noises 
and howlings, cutting themselves till the blood 
gushed out, as they went along." 



GARRICK. 



J. HE genius of Garrick seems to have been 
particularly calculated to introduce Shakespeare 
on the stage. He knew how to alter hihi so as 
to fit him for the audience of the present day, 
without divesting him of any of his excellencies, 
and the few additions he has ventured are in the 
spirit of the original. These Plays, so altered, 
are likely to keep possession of the theatre, while 
every other attempt at change or improvement 
are forgotten, except Gibber's Richard the 
Third, and Tate's Lear, which, with some 
correction of Garrick's, are still acted, though 
the alteration of the last is directly in opposition 
to the precepts of Aristotle and Mr. Addison. 
A a 2 



180 GARRICK. 

Gibber, though versed in the province of the 
drama, w^hich is perhaps essential to make a 
good dramatic writer, since the knovi^ledge of 
stage effect is of great consequence, possessed a 
genius not above mediocrity; and Tate ^ was a 
very indifferent poet. Yet there is a line in 
Gibber's Richard, written by himself, so charac- 
teristic of the manner of his archetype, that it 
has often been cited as one of Shakespeare's 
beauties. I mean the exclamation of Richard, 
on Buckingham's being taken, 

*^ Off with his head ! so much for Buckingham." 

And I heard, says Mr. Pye, (Comment, on 
Aristotle,) Mr. Pitt, afterwards Lord Ghatham, 
quote the following verse of Tate's, in the House 
of Gommons, undoubtedly taking it for Shake- 
speare's, 

'^ Where the gor'd battle bleeds in every vein." 

The tragedy of Hamlet was, by order of Mrs. 
Garrick, thrown into Garrick's grave. Though 
he was undoubtedly great in that character, he 
was equally so in many of Shakespeare's charac- 
ters, and superior in Lear. The comic characters 
it is presumed were thought too light for so 
solemn an occasion. If by burying that tragedy 
with Garrick it was meant to infer that it was 
lost to the stage with him, a complete edition of 
Shakespeare might, with the utmost propriety 
have been interred with that inimitable actor. 



LEMONS. 3i8l 



LEMONS. 

ThEOPHRASTUS, who studied under Plato 
and Aristotle, says of lemons, that they were culti- 
vated for their fragrance, not for their taste; 
that the peel was laid up with g-arments, t6 
preserve them from moths; and that the juice 
was administered by physicians medicinally. 

Virgil in his second Georgic, describes agree 
ably the Lemon-tree. Pliny mentions the lemon- 
juice as an antidote ; but says that the fruit, from 
its austere taste, was not eaten. 

Plutarch, who flourished within a generation 
of Pliny, witnessed the introduction of lemons at 
the Roman tables. Juba, king of Mauritania, 
was the first who exhibited them at his dinners. 
And Athenaeus introduces Democritus as not 
wondering that old people made wry mouths at 
the taste of lemons ; for, adds he, in my grand- 
father's time, they were never set upon the table. 
And to this day the Chinese, who grow the fruit, 
do not apply it to culinary purposes. 

The great use of lemons began with the intro- 
duction of sugar, which is said to have resulted 
from the conquest of Sicily, by the Arabs, in the 
ninth century. Sestini, in his letters from Sicily 
and Turkey, thinks that the best sorts of lemons, 



182 ORIGIN OF THE POINT OF HONOUR. 

and the best sorts of sherbet, were derived from 
Florence, b}^ the Sicilians. Probably Rome 
continued, even in the dark ages, to be the chief 
seat of luxury and refinement j and had domesti- 
cated the art of making lemonade, before either 
Messina or Florence. 

In Madagascar slices of lemon are boiled, and 
eaten with salt. 

Pomet, in his History of Drugs, gives the pre- 
ference over all others to the lemons of Madeira ; 
but according to Ferrarius, there grows at the 
Cape a sweet lemon, to which he gives the name 
incomparahilis. 



ORIGIN OF THE POINT OF HONOUR. 

Tt E meet with inexplicable enigmas in the 
codes of the laws of the barbarians. The law 
of the Frisians allowed only about the value of a 
farthing, by way of compensation, to a person 
who had been beaten with a stick ; and yet for 
ever such a small wound it allows more. By the 
Salic law, if a freeman gave three blows with a 
stick to another freeman, he paid about three 
halfpence; if he drew blood, he was punished as 
if he had wounded him with steel, and he paid 
about seven-pence halfpenny ; thus the punish- 
ment was proportioned to the greatness of the 



ORIGIN OF THE POINT OF HONOUR. 183 

wound. The law of the Lombards established 
different compensations for one, two, three, four 
blows, and so on. At present a single blow is 
equivalent to a hundred thousand. 

The constitution of Charlemagne, inserted in 
the law of the Lombards, ordains, that those who 
neve allowed the trial by combat, should fight 
with clubs. Perhaps this was out of regard to 
the clergy ; or, probably, as the usage of legal 
duels gained ground, they wanted to render them 
less sanguinary. The capitulary of Louis the 
Pious, added to the Salic law in 819, allows the 
liberty of chusing to fight either with the sword 
or club. In process of time none but bondmen 
or slaves fought with the club. 

Here may be seen the first rise and formation 
of the particular articles of our point of honour. 
The accuser began with declaring, in the pre- 
sence of the judge, that such a person had 
committed such an action, and the accused made 
answer that, he lied; upon which the judi^^e gave 
orders for the duel. It became then an established 
rule, that whenever a person had the lie given 
him, it was incumbent on him to fight. 

Upon a man's declaring he would fight, he 
could not afterwards depart from his word; if he 
did, he was condemned to a penalty. Hence 
this rule followed, that whenever a person had 
engaged his word, honour forbade him to recal it. 
Gentlemen fought one another on horseback, 



181 ORIGIN OF THE POINT Ol^ HONOUR. 

armed at all points ; villans fought on foot, and 
with clubs.* Hence it followed, that the club 
was looked upon as the instrument of insults and 
afFronts,t because to strike a man with it, was 
treating him like a villan. 

No one but villans fought with their faces un- 
covered; J so that none but they could receive a 
blow on the face. Therefore a box on the ear, 
became an injury that must be expiated with 
blood, because the person who received it, had 
been treated as a villan. 

The several people of Germany were not less 
sensible of the point of honour. The most 

* The club was in use at the Norman Conquest, and in 
the succeeding ages. St. Louis had a band of Guards 
armed with clubs, and was himself very dextrous in the use 
of it. 

Pennant, in describing the customs of the ancient Bards 
and Minstrels of Wales, says, that the lowest of the musical 
tribe was the Datceiniad pen pustzon^ or he that sung to the 
sound of his club, being ignorant of every other kind of 
instrument. When he was permitted to be introduced, h^ 
was obliged to stand in the middle of the hall, and sing his 
cowydd or awdl^ beating time, and playing the symphony 
with his pasfzcn or club ; but if there was a professor of 
music present, his leave must be first obtained before he pre- 
sumed to entertain the company with this species of melody. 
Wherever he came he must act as a menial servant to the 
bard or minstrel. 

+ Among the Romans it was not infamous io be beaten 
with a stick. 

J They had only the club and buckler. 



GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 185 

distant relations took a very considerable share to 
themselves in every affront, and on this all their 
codes are founded. The law of the Lombards 
ordains, that whoever goes attended with servants 
to beat a man by surprize, in order to load him 
thereby with shame, and to render him ridicu- 
lous, should pay half the compensation, which 
he would owe if he had killed him ; and if 
through the same motive he tied or bound him, 
he should pay three fourths of the same com- 
pensation. 



GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 

OeOFFREY of Monmouth was the first 
person, after the conquest, who attempted to 
write any thing concerning the ancient history of 
Britain. Although the century, in which he lived, 
is known, yet neither his family, the time of his 
birth, nor the place of his education has been 
ascertained. We are only informed that he was 
born at Monmouth, and became archdeacon of 
that place, and that he was consecrated bishop 
of St. Asaph, in llo2, which he resigned to live 
in the monastery of Abingdon. By some writers 
he is called a monk of the Dominican order, but, 
according to Leland, without sufficient authority. 
Warton says that he was a Benedictine monk. 

Bb 



186 GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 

Tlie history which has made his name cele- 
brated, is entitled Chronicon sive Historia Bri- 
iofium. This history, written in the British or 
Armorican language, was brought into England 
by Walter Mapes, otherwise Calenius, archdea- 
con of Oxford, a learned man, and a diligent 
<iollector of histories. Travelling through France, 
about the year 1100, he procured in Armorica, 
this ancient chronicle, and, on his return, com- 
municated it to Geoffrey, who, according to 
Wartoa, (History of English Poetry,) was an 
elegant Latin writer, and admirably skilled in 
the British tongue. Geoffrey, at the request and 
recommendation of Walter, translated this British 
chronicle into Latin, executing the translation 
with some degree of purity, and fidelity, inso- 
much that Matthew Paris speaking of him with 
reference to this history, says that he approved 
himself Interpres verus. With whatever fidelity 
the translation might be made, Geoffrey, however, 
w^s guilty of several interpolations, for he con- 
fesses that he took some part of his account of 
king Arthur's atchievements, from the mouth of 
his friend Walter, the archdeacon. He also 
owns that the account of Merlin's prophecies was 
not in the Armorican original. The speeches 
and letters were his own forgeries, and in the 
description of battles, he lias not scrupled to 
make frequent variations and additions. 

Geoffrey dedicated his translation to Robert, 



GEOFFREY OP MONMOUTH. 187 

Earl of Gloucester, natural son of king Henry 
the first ; this, however, did not protect him from 
the lash even of his contemporaries, for his fables, 
it appears, were soon discovered, and William 
Neubrig-ensis, who lived about the same time, in 
the beginning of the history which he wrote, 
thus speaks of him ; " In these days a certain 
writer is risen, who has devised many foolish 
fictions of the Britons ; he is named Geoffreyy 
and with what little shame, and great confidence 
does he frame his falsehoods.'* William himself, 
however, did not escape censure for thus animad- 
verting upon Geoffrey. 

It is difficult to ascertain at what period the 
original of Geoffrey's history was compiled^ 
The subject of it, when divested of its romantic 
embellishments, is a deduction of the Welsh 
princes, from the Trojan Brutus to Cadwallader, 
who reigned in the seventh century ; and this 
notion of their extraction from the Trojans, had 
80 infatuated the Welsh, that even so late as the 
year 1284, archbishop Peckham, in his injunc- 
tions to the diocese of St. Asaph, orders the 
people to abstain from giving credit to idl^ 
dreams and visions, a superstition which they 
had contracted from their belief in the dream of 
their founder Brutus, in the temple of Diana, 
concerning his arrival in Britain. The archbishop 
very seriously, advises them to boast no more of 
their relation to the conquered and fugitive 
Bb2 



188 GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 

Trojans, but to glory in the victorious cross of 
Christ. 

The Welsh were not singular in being desirous 
of tracing their descent from the Trojans, for 
several European nations were anciently fond of 
being considered as the offspring of that people. 
A French historian of the sixth century ascribes 
the origin of his countrymen to Francio, a 
son of Priam, and so universal was this humour, 
and to such an absurd excess of extravagance 
was it carried, that under the reign of Justinian, 
even the Greeks themselves were ambitious of 
being thought to be descended from their ancient 
enemies the Trojans. The most rational mode 
of accounting for this predilection, is to suppose, 
that the revival of Virgil's i^neid, about the 
sixth or seventh century, which represents the 
Trojans as the founders of Rome, the capital of 
the supreme Pontiff, and a city on various other 
accounts in the early ages of Christianity, highly 
reverenced and distinguished, occasioned an emu- 
lation in many other European nations of claim- 
ing an alliance to the same celebrated original. 
In the mean time it is not quite improbable, 
that as most of the European nations had become 
provinces of the Roman empire, those who 
fancied themselves to be of Trojan extraction 
might have imbibed this notion, or at least have 
acquired a general knowledge of the Trojan 
story from their conquerors, more especially the 



GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 189 

Britons, who continued so long under the Boman 
Government. 

Geoffrey produces Homer in attestation of a 
fact asserted in his history ; but in such a man- 
ner as shews tliat he knew little more than 
Homer's name, and was but imperfectly ac- 
quainted with Homer's subject. Geoffrey says 
that Brutus having" ravaged the province of 
Aquitaine with fire and sword, came to a place 
where the city of Tours now stands, as Homer 
testes. 

This fable of the descent of the Britons from 
the Trojans was solemnly alleged as an authen- 
tic and undeniable proof in a controversy of 
great national importance by king Edward the 
first, and his nobility, without the least objection 
from the opposite party. It was in the famous 
dispute concerning the subjection of the crown 
of Scotland to that of England, about the year 
1301. The allegations are contained in a letter 
to Pope Boniface, signed and sealed by the king 
and his lords. This is a curious instance of the 
implicit faith with which this tradition continued 
to be believed, even in a more enlightened age ; 
and an evidence that it was equally credited in 
Scotland. 

As to the story of Brutus in particular, 
Geoffrey's hero, it may be presumed, that his 
legend was not contrived, nor the history of his 
successors invented, until after the ninth century ; 



190 GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 

for Nennius,* who lived about the middle of that 
century, not only speaks of Brutus with great 
obscurity and inconsistency, bj^t seems totally 

* Nennius lived in the ninth century, and is said to have 
left behind him several treatises, of which all that has been 
published is the history, which was printed for the first time 
in Dr. Gale's Collection of British Historians, published at 
Oxford in 1687 and 1691, in 2 vols, folio. Lelaud mentions 
an ancient copy of Nennius's history, which he says he bor- 
rowed from Thomas Solme, Secretary for the French 
language to king Henry the eighth, in the margin of which 
were the additions of Sam, Beaulanius^ or Br it annus. He 
has transcribed several of these marginal annotations, which 
as it appears, were afterwards inserted in the body of the 
history, and were printed in that manner by Dr. Gale. 
The Doctor in his notes, mentions Beaulanius as the Scholi. 
ast on the copy which he used, but Leland has a great many 
other things, as extracts out of Beaulanius, which Dr. Gale 
does not mention to be only in the Scholion, There is also 
in the Bodleian Library a manuscript of Nennius appa- 
rently nearly 600 years old, in which the prefaces and all the 
interpolations, which Leland says are by Beaulanius, are 
wanting. 

Professor Bertram, of Copenhagen, published in the year 
1757, '^ Britannicarum gentium Historiae Antiquae Scripto- 
res tres ; Ricardus Corinensis, Gildas Badonicus, Nennius 
Banchorensis : recensuit, notisque ct indice auxit Carol us 
Bcrtramus, S. A. Lond, Soc. &c. Havniae, 1757." 8vo. 
The Professor followed Dr. Gale's edition of Gildas and 
Nennius, but in the latter he has distinguished the interpola- 
tions of Beaulanius from the genuine i(t\t. Mr. Gough, 
(Brit. Topogr. vol. 1, p. 15.) mentions Mr. Evan Evans 
having been long preparing a new edition of Nennins, from 
the Bodleian and other manuscripts. 



GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 19) 

uninformed as to every circumstance of the 
-British affairs which preceded Caesar's invasion. 
There are other proofs that this piece could not 
have existed before the ninth century. Alfred's 
Saxon translation of the Mercian law is mentioned; 
and Charlemagne's twelve peers, by an anachro- 
nism not uncommon in romance, are said to be 
present at king* Arthur's magnificent coronation, 
in the city of Caerleon. It were easy to produce 
instances, that Geoffrey's chronicle was, undoubt- 
edly, framed after the legend of St. Ursula, the 
acts of St. Lucius, and the historical writings of 
Venerable Bede, had procured a considerable 
circulation in the neighbouring countries. At 
the same time it contains many passages which 
incline us to determine, that some parts of it, at 
least, were written after or about the eleventh 
century. 

Warton, (Hist, of Eng. Poetry, Dis. 1.) in 
order to prove these positions, says, that he will 
not insist on that passage, in which the title of 
legate of the apostolic see is attributed to Dubri- 
cius, in the character of the primate of Britain, 
as it appears for obvious reasons, to have been 
an artful interpolation of Geoffrey, who, it will 
be remembered, was an ecclesiastic. Other argu- 
ments present themselves, possessing more effici- 
ency ; Canute's forest, or Cannock Wood, in 
Staffordshire, occurs, and Canute died in the 
vear 10^50. 



ID2 geoffhey of monmouth. 

At the ideal coronation of king Arthur, just 
mentioned, a tournament is described, as ex- 
hibited in its highest splendour. " Many 
knights,** says this Armoric chronicler, " famous 
for feats of chivalry, were present, with apparel 
and arms of the same colour and fashion. Thev 
formed a species of diversion, in imitation of a 
fight on horseback, and the ladies being placed 
on the walls of the castles, darted amorous glances 
on the combatants. None of these ladies esteemed 
any knight worthy of her love, but such as bad 
given proof of his gallantry, in three several 
encounters.** Here is the practice of chivalry, 
under the combined ideas of love and military 
prowess, as they seem to have subsisted after the 
feudal constitution had acquired greater degrees, 
not only of stability, but of splendour and refine- 
ment. And, although a species of tournament 
was exhibited in France, at the reconciliation of 
the sons of Lewis the Feeble, at the close of the 
ninth century, and at the beginning of the tenth, 
the coronation of the emperor Henry, was solem- 
nized with martial entertainments, in which many 
parties were introduced fighting on horseback, 
yet it was long afterwards that these games were 
accompanied with the peculiar formalities, and 
ceremonious usages here described. In the mean 
time, we canot answer for the innovations of a 
translator, in such a description. The burial of 
Hengist, the Saxon chief, who is said to have 



GEOFFREY, QF MQNMOUTH. 193 

been interred not after the Pa^qn fashion, as 
Geoffrey renders the words of the original, but 
after the manner of the Soldans, is partly an ar- 
gument, that our romance was composed about 
the time of the Crusades. It was not till those 
memorable campaigns of mistaken devotion, had 
infatuated the western world, that the Soldans, or 
sultans of Babylon, of Egypt, of Iconium, and 
other eastern kingdoms, became familiar in 
Europe. Not that the notion of this piece, being 
written so late as the crusades, in the least invali- 
dates the doctrine here delivered. Not even if 
we suppose that Geoffrey was its original com- 
poser. That notion rather tends to confirm, and 
establish this system. 

On the whole it may be affirmed, that Geoffrey's 
chronicle, which is supposed to contain the ideas 
of the Welsh bards, entirely consists of Arabian 
inventions. And in this view no difference is 
made, whether it was compiled about the tenth 
century, at which time, if not before, the Arabians, 
from their settlements in Spain, must have com- 
municated their romantic fables to other parts of 
Europe, especially to the French ; or whether it 
first appeared in the eleventh century, after the 
crusades had multiplied these fables to an exces- 
sive degree, and made them universally popular. 
And although the general cast of the inventions, 
contained in this romance, is alone sufficient to 
point out the source from whence they were 

c c 



194 GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 

derived, yet it is thought proper to prove to a 
demonstration what is here advanced, by pro- 
ducing^ and examining some particular passages. 

The books of the Arabians and Persians 
abound with extravagant traditions about the 
giants Gog and Magog. These they call Jagi- 
ouge and Magiouge; and the Caucasian Wall, 
said to be built by Alexander the Great from the 
Caspian to the Black Sea, in order to cover the 
frontiers of his dominion, and to prevent the in- 
cursions of the Scythians, is called by the orien- 
tals the Wall of Gog and Magog. One 
of the most formidable giants, according to our 
Armorican Romance, who opposed the landing of 
Brutus in Britain, was Goemagot. He was twelve 
cubits high, and would uproot an oak as easily as 
a hazel wand ; but after a most obstinate en- 
counter with Corinaeus, he was tumbled into the 
sea from the summit of a steep cliff on the rocky 
shores of Cornwall, and dashed in pieces against 
the huge crags of the declivity. The place 
where he fell, adds our historian, taking its name 
from the giants fall, is called Sam Goemagot, 
or Goemagot's leap to this day. A no less 
monstrous giant, wt\om king Arthur slew on 
St. Michael's mount in Cornwall, is said by this 
fabler to have come from Spain. Here the 
origin of these stories is evidently betrayed. 
The Arabians, or Saracens, as has been before 
hinted, had conquered Spain, and were settled 



GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 19^ 

there. Arthur havins: killed this redoubted 
giant, dgclares, that he had combated with none 
of equal strength and prowess, since he overcame 
the mighty giant, Rytho, on the mountain 
Arabius, who had made himself a robe of the 
beards of the kings whom he had killed. A 
magician brought from Spain is called to the 
assistance of Edwin a prince of Northumberland, 
educated under Solomon king of the Armoricans. 
In the prophecy of Merlin, delivered toVortigern, 
after the battle of the Dragons, forged perhaps 
by the translator Geoffrey, yet apparently in the 
spirit and manner of the rest, we have the 
Arabians named, and their situations in Spain 
and Africa. " From Conan shall come forth a 
wild boar, whose tusks shall destroy the oaks of 
the forests of France. The Arabians and 
Africans shall dread him ; and he shall con- 
tinue his rapid course into the most distant parts 
of Spain.'* This is king Arthur. In the same 
prophecy, mention is made of the " Woods of 
Africa." In another place Gormund, king of 
the Africans occurs. In a battle which Arthur 
fights against the Romans, some of the princi- 
pal leaders in the Roman army are Alifantinam, 
king of Spain ; Pandrasus, king of Egypt ; 
Broccus, king of the Medes; Evander, king of 
Syria; Micipsa, king of Babylon; and a Duke 
of Phrygia. 

The old fictions about Stonehenge were 
c c 2 



196 GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 

derived from the same inexhaustible source of 
extravagant imagination. We are told in this 
Romance, that the giants conveyed the stones 
which compose this miraculous monument from 
the farthest coasts of Africa. Every one of these 
stones is supposed to be mystical, and to main- 
tain a medicinal virtue ; an idea drawn from the 
medical skill of the Arabians, and more particu- 
larly from the Arabian doctrine of attributing 
healing qualities, and other occult properties to 
stones. Merlin's transformation of Uther into 
Gorlois, and of Ulfin into Bricel, by the power 
of some medical preparation is a species of 
Arabian magic, which professed to work- the 
most wonderful deceptions of this kind. The 
attributing of prophetical language to birds was 
common among the Orientals, and an eagle is 
supposed to speak at building the walls of the 
city of Paladur, now Shaftesbury. 

The Arabians cultivated the study of Philoso- 
phy, particularly Astronomy, with amazing 
ardour. Hence arose the tradition, reported by 
our historian, that in king Arthur*s reign, there 
subsisted at Carleon in Glamorganshire, a 
college of two hundred philosophers, who studied 
astronomy and other sciences ; and who were 
particularly employed in watching the courses 
of the stars, and predicting events to the king 
from their observations. Edwin's Spanish 
magician above mentioned, by his knowledge of 



GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 197 

the flight of birds, and the courses of the stars, 
is said to fortel future disasters. In the same 
strain, Merlin prognosticates Uther's success in 
battle by the appearance of a comet. The same 
Enchanter's wonderful skill in mechanical powers y 
by which he removes the Giant's Dance, or 
Stonehenge, from Ireland into England, and the 
notion that this stupendous structure was raised 
by a PROFOUND philosophical know- 
ledge OF THE MECHANICAL ARTS, are 
founded on the Arabian literature. To which 
we may add king, Bladud's magical operations. 
Dragons are a sure mark of orientalism. One 
of these in our Romance is a " terrible dragon 
flying from the west, breathing fire, and illumi- 
nating all the country with the brightness of 
his eyes." In another place we have a giant 
mounted on a winged dragon ; the dragon erects 
his scaly tail, and wafts his rider to the clouds 
with great rapidity. 

Arthur and Charlemagne are the first and 
original heroes of Romance. And as Geoffrey's 
history is the grand repository of the acts of 
Arthur, so a fabulous history ascribed to Turpin 
is the ground work of all the chimerical legends 
which have been related concerning the con- 
quests of Charlemagne and his twelve Peers. 
In these two fabulous chronicles the foundations 
of romance seem to be laid. The principal 
characters, the leading subjects, and the funda- 



198 



GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 



% 



mental fictions which have supplied such ample 
matter to this singular species of composition, 
are here first displayed. And although the long 
continuance of the Crusades imported innumer- 
able inventions of a similar complexion, and 
substituted the atchievements of new champions, 
and the wonders of other countries, yet the tales 
of Arthur and Charlemagne, diversified indeed, 
or enlarged with additional embellishments, still 
continued to prevail, and to be the favourite 
topics ; and this, partly from their early popu- 
larity, partly from the quantity and the beauty 
of the fictions with which they were at first sup- 
ported, and especially because the design of the 
Crusades had made those subjects so fashionable 
in which Christians fouo^ht with Infidels. In a 
word these volumes ai'e the first specimens extant 
in this mode of writing. No European history 
before these has mentioned giants, enchanters, 
dragons, and the like monstrous and arbitrary 
fictions. And the reason is obvious ; they were 
written at a time when a new and unnatural 
mode of thinking took place in Europe, intro- 
duced by our communication with the East. 

Geoffrey, in his chronicle, gives a genealogy 
of the kings of Britain, from the days of Brutus, 
including a list of seventy monarchs, who 
governed this island, previously to the invasion 
of Julius Caesar. This list is very distinct and 
plain, but bears so many marks of invention, 



GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 199 

either of himself, or of the author, from whom he 
translated his chronicle, that it has long* since 
been treated as a mere fiction. With respect to 
the story of Brutus, the bishop of St. Asaph is 
of opinion, that this forg-ery was intended to pass 
off the English kings, as being as nobly descended 
as the kings of other nations, by drawing their 
descent from the Trojans, according to the belief 
of the age in which the author lived. Sir 
William Temple, in his introduction to the 
History of England, (p. 19.) accounts the story 
of Brutus, as a fabulous invention. 

Bishop Nicolson (Hist. Libr. p. 37.) says, 
that the best defence that can be made for 
Geoffrey's history, is that which was written by 
Sir John Price, and published at London, in 
quarto, in 1573, under the title of Historic 
Britannicee Defensio. This was dedicated by the 
author, to Lord Burleigh. (See Herbert's 
Ames, vol. 2. p. 935, 1056.) 

The chronicle of Geoffrey of Monmouth, has 
occasioned a long controversy, and divided the 
learned world as much as any other work given 
to the public. By some it has been treated as a 
forgery imposed upon the world by Geoffrey 
himself, whilst by others the ground work is con- 
sidered as true, although the history, like most 
monkish writings, is mixed with childish fables 
and legendary tales. 

The controversy has now been some time 



•200 GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 

Anally decided, and the best Welsh critics allow 
that Geoffrey's work was a vitiated translation 
of the history of the British kings, written by 
Tyssilio, or St. Telian, bishop of St. Asaph, 
who flourished in the seventh century. Geoffrey 
in his work omitted many parts, made consider- 
able alterations, additions, and interpolations, 
latinised many of the British appellations, and in 
the opinion of a learned Welshman,* (Lewis 
Morris) metaphorically murdered Tyssillio. We 
may therefore conclude that Geoffrey ought 
not to be cited as historical authority any more 
than Amadis de Gaul, or the Seven Champions of 
Christendom. 

Geoffrey's historical Romance, however, has 
not only been versified by monkish writers, but 
has supplied some of our best poets with materi- 
als for their sublime compositions. Spenser in 
the second book of his " Fairie Queene'* has 
given 

" A Chronicle of Briton kings 
" From Brute to Arthur's rayne ;" 

in which he has adorned the genealogy with 
poetical images, and introduces it with a sublime 
address to queen Elizabeth, who was proud of 
tracing her descent from the British line. 

In this historical romance is also to be found, 
the affecting history of Leir, king of Britain, the 
eleventh iu succession after Brutus, who divided 
* Cambrian Register, 1796, p. 947. 



GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 201 

his kingdom between Goneriller and Regan, his 
two elder daughters, and disinherited his younger 
daughter, Cordeilla. Being ungratefully treated 
by his elder daughters, he was restored to the 
crown by Cordeilla, who espoused Aganippus, 
king of the Franks. From this account Shake- 
speare selected his incomparable tragedy of king 
Lear ; but improved the pathos by making the 
death of Cordeilla, which name he softened after 
the example of Spenser into Cordelia, precede 
that of Lear, whilst in the original story, the 
aged father is restored to his kingdom, and sur- 
vived by Cordeilla. 

Milton seems to have been particularly fond of 
Geoffrey's tales,* to which be was indebted for 
the beautiful fiction of Sabrina in the mask of 
Comus. In his youth he even formed the design 

* In 1670, Milton published his History of England, 
comprising the whole fable of Geoffrey, and continued to 
the Nonnan loTasion. Why he should have given the first 
part, which he seems not to have believed, and which is 
uniTersallj rejected, it is difficult to conjecture. The style 
is harsh, but it has something of rough vigour, which per- 
haps may often strike, though it cannot please. On this 
history, the licenser fixed his claws, and before he would 
transmit it to the press, tore out several parts. Some censures 
of the Saxon Monks were taken away, leit they should be 
applied to the modern Clergy ; and a character of the Long 
Parliament and Assembly of Divines, was excluded; of 
which the Author gave a copy to the Earl of Anglesca, and 
which being afterwards published, has been since inserted in 
it? proper place.>--/dbMion'5 Lives of Iht Poeis^ Art. Milton, 

D d 



^02 GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 

of making the early period of the British history, 
from Brutus to Arthur, the subject of an Epic 
Poem. The poetical language of Milton was 
peculiarly suited to this species of romance ; he 
would have exalted the legends of Geoffrey, and 
enriched with the finest imagery the incanta- 
tions and prophecies of Merlin, the heroic deeds 
of Vortimer, Aurelius, and Uther Pendragon. 

The fables of Geoffrey have been clothed in 
rhyme by Robert of Gloucester, a monk of the 
abbey of Gloucester. He has left a poem of 
considerable length, which is a history of Eng- 
land in verse, from Brutus to the reign of 
Edward the first. His rhyming chronicle is, 
however, destitute either of art or imagination, 
and Geoffrey's prose, frequently has a more 
poetical air than this author's verses. It was 
evidently written after the year 1278, as the poet 
mentions king Arthur's sumptuous tomb, erected 
in that year, before the high altar of Glaston- 
bury abbey, and he declares himself a living 
witness of the remarkably dismal weather which 
distinguished the day on which the battle of 
Evesham was fought in the year 1265. From 
these and other circumstances this piece appears 
to have been composed about the year 1280, It 
is full of Saxonisms, which indeed abound more 
or less, in every writer before Gower and 
Chaucer. 

Geoffrey was also copied by an old French 



GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 20S 

poet, called Maister Wace, or Gasse, from which 
Robert de Brunne in his metrical chronicle of 
England translated that part which extends from 
JEneas to the death of Cadwallader. Wace's 
poem is commonly called Roman de Rois 
d'Angleterre, and is esteemed one of the oldest 
of the French Romances. 

With respect to the materials this chronicle 
has afforded to other writers, I will here give an 
instance or two. 

Tyrrel, in his history of England, acknow- 
ledges that his first book is an epitome of 
Geoffrey's pretended history ; but at the same 
time says that if it had not been more for the diver- 
sion of the younger sort of readers, and that the 
work would have been thought to be imperfect 
without it, he should have been much better 
satisfied in wholly omitting it. 

In the preface to S tow's chronicle, (folio, 1631) 
the editor observes that Neubrigensis had written 
several invectives against Geoffrey, but more out 
of spleen than judgment. He charges that writer 
with maliciously endeavouring to destroy the 
credit of Geoffrey, because he himself having 
been a supplicant for the bishoprick of St. Asaph, 
had been rejected by the Prince of Wales, and 
had thus become the opponent of the Welsh his- 
tory. His observations. Stow says, have been 
confuted by Sir John Price, Dr. Powel, and 
also by Lambard, in his perambulations of Kent. 



204 GEOFPEEY OF MONMOUTH. 

Stow then mentions John of Whcthamsted, 
Polydore Virgil, and others, who have written 
against Geoffrey, and afterwards enumerates a 
long list of writers, as having uniformly supported 
him, or in other words, who have copied his 
history into their own chronicles. — Hume occa- 
sionally refers to Geoffrey, as an authority for 
some matters respecting the Saxon period of 
his history. 

The History of Geoffrey was printed at Paris, 
in quarto, in 1508, and again in the same size, 
by Ascensius, in 1517. It was also printed with 
five other British historians, in folio, at Ley den? 
in 1587. Ponticus Virunnius, an Italian author, 
made an abridgment of it, in six books, which 
was printed at London, by Powel, in J 585, and 
also in the edition just mentioned. 

A translation of Geoffrey's chronicle was made 
by Aaron Thompson, and published at London 
in 1718, to which was prefixed a long preface, 
relating to the authority of the history. Thomp- 
son's vindication of his author is elaborately 
written, and he defends him with great skill and 
learning ; but after refuting the charge of forgery, 
he has failed in his attempt to establish Geoffrey ^s 
work as an historical performance, for he him- 
self invalidates its authority, by acknowledging 
that it was only such an irregular account, as 
the Britons were able to preserve in those times 
of destruction and confbsion, with the addition 



J-UPTING UP THE HAND IN SWEARING. 205 

of some romantic tales, which indeed might be 
traditions amonar the Welsh, and such as Geoffrev 
mi^ht think entertaining stories for the credulity 
of the times. 

Thompson, in his preface, says that in making 
his translation, he used two editions of Geoffrey. 
The first was the Paris edition of Ascensius, 1517, 
which abounds with abbreviations of words, 
sometimes rendering their reading ambiguous* 
The other was the edition of Commeline, printed 
in the year 1587, which is much the most correct. 
These two were printed from different manu- 
icripts, and there is a considerable variation 
between them, especially in the orthography of 
persons and places. This observation extends to 
the several ancient abridgments of Geoffrey, by 
Alfred of Beverley ,^ Ralph Diceto, Matthew of 
Westminster, Ralph Higden, and Ponticus 
Virunnius. 



LIFTING UP THE HAND IN 
SWEARING. 

?T E find this significant ceremony of lifting up 
the hand in swearing, practised by the Greeks 
and Trojans. Thus Agamemnon swears in 
Homer, (Iliad, 7, 412) 

<< To all the gods his sceptre be uplifts." 



206 LIFTING UP THE HANB IN SWEARING. 

And Dolon requiring an oath of Hector, (Iliad, 
10, 321) 

<' But first exalt thy sceptre to the skies, 
*' And swear " 

So in Virgil, (JEn. 12, 196) we find Latinus, 
when swearing, looking up to heaven, and 
stretching his right hand to the stars. 

And we even meet with traditionary traces of 
their gods swearing in like manner. Thus 
Apollo, in Pindar, orders Lachesis, one of the 
Fates, to lift up her hands and not violate the 
great oath of the gods. 

Giving one's hand under, or to another was 
a token of submission. It was acknowledging 
his own power subject to that of the other. In 
this manner all the princes submitted to Solomon, 
(1 Chron. 29, 24) and Hezekiah commands 
the children of Israel, (2 Chron. 30, 8) to give 
the hand to Jehovah, that is to submit them- 
selves and ascribe the power and the glory to him. 

Homage is still performed in many places by 
the homager's kneeling down and putting his 
hands between those of his lord, then taking an 
oath of fealty to him ; after which they kiss each 
other's cheek, in token of friendship and fidelity. 

Giving the hand, was also a token of promis- 
ing ; it was a kind of staking their active powers 
for the performance of some promise or engage- 
ment. (See Ezra, 10, 19.) 

The joining or taking of hands, among the 



VILLIERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. 207 

ancients, betokened confederacy, or confirmation 
of some promise. This is illustrated by Homer's 
expression, (Iliad, 21, 286) where Neptune and 
Minerva appear to Achilles, in a human shape, 
and confirm their promise, by taking his hand in 
their's. So (Iliad, 6, 233) Glaucus and Diomed 
took hold of each other's hands, and plighted 
their faith. On which line, Eustathius remarks, 
they plighted their faith to each other, by the 
accustomed ceremony of joining their right 
hands.* 

We observe the same mode of joining hands in 
our marriage ceremony ; and the custom of shak- 
ing hands, has also reference to some engagement 
for the future, as well as being a token of friend- 
ship and amity. 



VILLIERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. 

A TREATY of marriage between Charles, 
prince of Wales, (afterwards Charles I.) and 
the Infanta of Spain, having been a long time 
in agitation, Buckingham, in JG23, persuaded 
Prince Charles to make a journey into Spain, 
and to fetch home his mistress, the Infanta, by 
representing to him^ how brave and gallant an 
action it would be, and how soon it would put 
♦ ParkhuTSt's Ueb, Lejc. ^71. 



208 VILLIERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. 

an end to those formalities, which, though aii 
substantial matters were already agreed upon, 
might yet retard her voyage to England many 
months. It is suggested by Lord Clarendon, 
that Buckingham's motive for this journey, was 
an unwillingness that the Earl of Bristol, the 
ambassador in Spain, should have the sole ho- 
nour of concluding the treaty of marriage. How- 
«ver, the king was vehemently against this 
journey, and indeed with good reason; but the 
solicitations of the prince, and the impetuosity 
of Buckingham, prevailed. 

It appears that Buckingham, during his stay 
in Spain, behaved with great insolence to the 
Earl of Bristol, the English ambassador at that 
court. In a letter, written by the Earl to king 
James, we have the following particulars: — 
♦' Let your Majesty call some certain men unto 
you, and sift out of them the opinion of the more 
moderate parliament-men ; and enquire of those 
that come out of Spain, who did give the first 
cause of falling out? Whether the Duke of 
Buckingham did not many things against the 
authority and reverence due to the Prince? 
Whether he was not wont to be sitting, whilst 
the Prince stood, and was in presence ; and also 
to have his feet resting upon another seat, after 
an indecent manner ? Whether, when the Princ<* 
was uncovered whilst the Queen and Infanta 
looked out at the window, he uncovered his head 



VILLTERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. 209 

or not? Whether, sitting at table with the 
prince, he did not behave himself nnreverently ? 
Whether he were not wont to come into the 
prince's chamber, with his clothes half on, so 
that the doors could not be opened to them that 
came to visit the prince from the king* of Spain, 
the door-keepers refusing* to go in for modesty 
sake ? Whether he did not call the prince by 
ridiculous names ? Whether he did not dishonour 
and profane the king's palace with base and con- 
temptible women ? Whether he did not divers 
obscene things, and used not immodest gesticula- 
tions, and wanton tricks with players in the 
presence of the prince ? Whether he did not 
violate his faith to the Duke d'Olivarez, the 
Spanish prime minister ? Whether he did not 
presently communicate his discontents, offences, 
and complaints, to the ambassadors of other 
princes ? Whether in doing of his business, he did 
not use frequent threatenings unto the catholic 
king's ministers, and to apostolical nuncios ? 
Whether he did not affect to sit at plays presented 
in the king's palace, after the manner and exam- 
ple of the king and prince, being not contented 
with the honour that is ordinarily given to the 
high steward or major-domo of the king's 
house ?" 

There is sufficient reason for believing, that 
most of these queries may be answered in the 
affirmative. 

E e 



210 



KING ARTHUR, 



KING ARTHUR. 



In a century (A. D. 400 to A. D. 500) of 
perpetual, or at least implacable war, much 
courage, and some skill, must have been exerted 
for the defence of Britain, on the departure of 
the Roman legions, against the Saxon invaders. 
Yet if the memory of its champions is almost 
buried in oblivion, we need not repine; since 
every age, however destitute of science or virtue, 
sufficiently abounds with acts of blood and mili- 
tary renown. The tomb of Vortimer, the son of 
Vortigern, was erected on the margin of the sea- 
shore, as a landmark formidable to the Saxons, 
whom he had thrice vanquished in the fields of 
Kent. Ambrosius Aurelian was descended from 
a noble family of Romans, his modesty was equal 
to his valour, and his valour, till the last fatal 
action, was crowned with splendid success. But 
every British name is effaced by the illustrious 
name of Arthur, the hereditary prince of the 
Silures, who inhabited South Wales, and the 
elective king or general of the nation. According 
to the most rational accounts, he defeated, in 
twelve successive battles, the Angles of the 
North, and the Saxons of the West ; but the 
declining ago of the hero was embittered by 



KING ARTHUR. 211 

popular ingratitude and domestic misfortunes.. 
The events of his life are less interesting, thaa 
the sinofular revolutions of his fame. Durinof a 
period of five hundred years the tradition of his 
exploits was preserved, and rudely embellished, 
by the obscure bards of Wales and Armorica, 
who were odious to the Saxons, and unknown 
to the rest of mankind. The pride and curiosity 
of the Norman conquerors, prompted them to 
enquire into the ancient history of Britain ; they 
listened with fond credulity to the tale of Arthur, 
and eagerly applauded the merit of a prince, who 
had triumphed over the Saxons, their common 
enemies. His romance, transcribed in the latin 
of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and afterwards trans- 
lated into the fashionable idiom of the times, was 
enriched with the various, though incoherent 
ornaments, which were familiar to the experience, 
the learning, or the fancy of the twelfth century. 
The progress of a Phrygian colony from the 
Tyber to the Thames, was easily engrafted on 
the fable of the >^neid ; and the royal ancestors 
of Arthur derived their origin from Troy, and 
claimed their alliance with the Caesars, Hi* 
trophies were decorated with captive provinces 
and imperial titles ; and his Danish victories 
avenged the recent injuries of his country. The 
gallantry and superstition of the British hero, 
his feasts and tournaments, and the memorable 
institution of his knights of the romid table, were 
Ee 2 



212 KING ARTHUR. 

faithfully copied from the reigriing* manners of 
chivalry, and the fabulous exploits of Uther's 
son, appear less incredible than the adventures 
which were achieved by the enterprising valour 
of the Normans. Pilgrimage and the holy wars, 
introduced into Europe the specious miracles of 
Arabian magic. Fairies and giants, flying 
dragons, and enchanted palaces, were blended 
with the more simple fictions of the west ; and 
the fate of Britain dt^pended on the art, or the 
predictions of Merlin. Every nation embraced 
and adorned the popular romance of Arthur and 
the knights of the round table : their names were 
celebrated in Greece and Italy ; and the volumi- 
nous tales of Sir Lancelot and Sir Tristram were 
devoutly studied by the princes and nobles, who 
disregarded the genuine heroes and historians of 
antiquity. At length the light of science and 
reason was rekindled ; the talisman was broken ; 
the visionary fabric melted into air, and by a 
natural, though unjust reverse of the public 
opinion, the severity of the present age is inclined 
to question even the exislence of Arthur. 



ALCHEMY. 213 



ALCHEMY. 



About the year 290, the Emperor Diocletian 
published a very remarkable edict which instead of 
being condemned as the effect of jealous tyranny, 
deserves to be applauded as an act of prudence 
and humanity. He caused a diligent enquiry to 
be made for all tjie ancient books which treated 
of the art of making gold and silver, and without 
pity committed them to the flames ; apprehensive, 
it is remarked, lest the opulence of the Egyptians 
should inspire them with confidence to rebel 
against tlie empire. But if Diocletian had been 
convinced of the reality of that valuable art, far 
from extinguishing the memoirs, he would have 
converted the operation of it to the benefit of the 
public revenue. It is much more likely, that his 
good sense discovered to him the folly of such 
magnificent pretensions, and that he was desirous 
of preserving the reason and fortunes of his sub- 
jects from the mischievous pursuit. It may be 
remarked that these ancient books, so liberally 
ascribed to Pythagoras, to Solomon, or to 
Hermes, were the pious frauds of more recent 
adepts. I'he Greeks were inattentive either to 
the use or to the abuse of chemistry. In that 
immense register, where Pliny has deposited the 



214 NOBLE FAMILIES 

discoveries, the arts, and the errors of mankind; 
there is not the least mention of the transmu- 
tation of metals, and the persecution of Diocle- 
tian is the first authentic event in the history of 
Alchemy. The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs 
diffused that vain science over the globe. Con- 
genial to the avarice of the human heart, it was 
studied in China as in Europe, with equal eager- 
ness, and with equal success. The darkness of 
the middle ages ensured a favourable reception 
to every tale of wonder, and the revival of learn- 
ing gave new vigour to hope, and suggested 
more specious arts of deception. Philosophy, 
with the aid of experience, has at length banished 
the study of alchemy ; and the present age, 
however desirous of riches, is content to seek 
them by the humbler means of commerce and 
industry. 



ACCOUNT OF SEVERAL NOBLE 

FAMILIES IN ENGLAND WHO OWE THEIR 
ELEVATION TO THE PEERAGE TO THEIR 
ANCESTORS HAVING BEEN ENGAGED IN 
TRADE. 

J.T is a striking and peculiar feature in the 
constitiition of England, that men who render 
themselves eminent in the liberal sciences, in the 
arts, or in commerce, frequently find their pur- 



WHO HAVE BEEN ENGAGED IN TRADE. 215 

suits conduct them to a high degree of rank and 
estinnation in the state ; and the sovereign has, in 
numerous instances, conferred the honour of the 
Peerage on certain individuals, who ha\e con- 
tributed by their abilities to enlarge and promote 
the manufactures and conmierce of the nation. 
Among the families whose ancestors have 
deserved well of their country, and who owe 
their elevation to the Peerage to their forefathers 
having been engaged in trade, the following are 
honourable instances. 

The Earls of Coventry are descended 
from John Coventry, son of William Coventry, 
of the city of that name. The former \\?is an 
opulent mercer, and resided in London, of which 
city he was Lord Mayor in 142-3, and one of the 
executors of the celebrated VVhittinofton. He 
was a resolute and determined magistrate, and 
was highly commended for his spirited inter- 
ference in the dreadful quarrel between Hum- 
phrey Duke of Gloucester, and the insolent 
Cardinal Beaufort, which he successfully quelled. 

The family of Rich, Karls of Warwick and 
Holland, arose from Richard Rich, an opulent 
mercer, sheriff of London in the year 1441. 
His descendant, Richard, was distinguished by 
his knowledge of the law ; became Solicitor 
General in the reign of king Henry the eighth, 
and treacherously effected the ruin of Sir Thomas 
More ; was created a baron of the realm in the 



216 NOBLE FAMILIES 

reign of Edward the sixth, and became Lord 
Chancellor by the favour of the same monarch. 

The HoLLEs's, Earls of Clare, and afterwards 
Dukes of Newcastle, sprung* from Sir William 
Holies, Lord Mayor of London in 1540, son of 
William Holies, citizen and baker. His great- 
grandson was the first who was called to the 
House of Peers, in the reign of James the first, 
by the title of Lord Haughton, and soon after 
was advanced to the dignity of Earl of Clare. 
The fourth peer of that title was created by king 
William, Duke of Newcastle ; but the title 
became extinct in his name in 1711. 

Sir Thomas Leigh, Lord Mayor of London, 
in 1558, furnished the Peerage with the addition 
of two. He was the son of Roger Leigh, of 
Wellington, in Shropshire. Sir Thomas's grand- 
son, Francis, was created by Charles the first, 
Lord Dunsmore, and afterwards Earl of Chiches- 
ter; and Sir Thomas's second son. Sir Thomas 
Leigh, of Stoneleigh, had the honour of being 
called to the House of Peers by the title of Lord 
Leigh, of Stoneleigh. 

The Pleydell-Bouveries, Earls of Rad- 
nor, descend from Edward De Bouverie, an 
opulent Turkey merchant, who died in 1694. 

DuciE, Lord Ducie, is descended from Sir 
Robert Ducie, who belonged to the company of 
merchant tailors, and was sheriff of London in 
1621, and Lord Mayor in 1631. He was 



WHO HAVE BEEN ENGAGED IN TRADE. 217 

immensely rich, and was made banker to king 
Charles the first, and on the breaking out of the 
rebellion, lost ^80,000, owing to him by his 
Majesty, Nevertheless he is said to have left at 
the time of his death, property in land, money, 
<kc. to his four sons, to the amount of c£400,000. 

Paul Bayning, sheriff of London in 1593, 
had a son of the same name, who was first 
created a baronet, and in the third of Charles 
the first, a baron of the realm, by the title of 
Baron Bayning*, and soon after a viscount, by 
the title of Viscount Bayning* of Sudbury. He 
was buried in the paternal tomb, in the church 
of St. Olave's. His house wsls in Mark-lane. 
After the fire of London, the business of the 
custom house was transacted in that which went 
under the name of Lord Bayning's. 

The Cranpields, Earls of Middlesex, rose 
from Lionel Cranfield, a citizen of London, bred 
up in the custom house. He became, in 1620, 
Lord Treasurer of England. The Duke of 
Dorset is descended from Frances, sister and 
heir of the third Earl of Middlesex, married to 
Richard, Earl of Dorset. 

The noble family of Ingram, Viscount Irwin, 
was raised in the reign of queen Elizabeth, by 
Hugh Irwin, citizen, merchant, and tallow- 
chandler, who died in 1G12. He left a large 
fortune between two sons; of whom Sir Arthur, 
the younger, settled in Yorkshire, and purchased 

pf 



218 NOBLE FAMILIES 

a considerable estate, the foundation of the good 
fortune afterwards enjoyed by the family. The 
jjresent Marchioness of Hertford is the represen- 
tative of the Ingrains, being- the daughter and 
CO heir of the last Viscount Irwin. 

Sir Stephen Brown, son of John Brown, 
of Newcastle, Lord Mayor of London, in 1438, 
and again in 1448, was a grocer, and added 
another peer, in the person of Sir Anthony 
Brown, created Viscount Montagu, by Philip 
and Mary, in 1554. 

The Legges rose to be Earls of Dartmouth. — 
The first who was raised to the peerage was that 
loyal and gallant naval officer, George Legge, 
created Baron of Dartmouth in 1682. He was 
descended from an ancestor who filled the Pre- 
torian Chair of London in the years 1347 and 
1354, having by his industry in the trade of a 
skinner, attained great wealth. 

Sir Geoffrey Buleen, Lord Mayor in 
1458, was grandfather of Thomas, Earl of 
Wiltshire, father of Anna BuUen, and grand- 
father of queen Elizabeth, the highest genealogi- 
cal honour the city of London ever possessed. 

Sir Baptist Hicks was a great mercer at 
the accession of James the first, and made a 
large fortune, by supplying the court with silks. 
He was first knighted, and afterwards created 
Viscount Campden. It is said he left his two 
daughters one hundred thousand pounds each. 



WHO HAVE BEEN ENGAGED IN TRADE. 219 

He built a large house in St. John's street, for 
the justices of Middlesex to hold their sessions in, 
which (till its demolition a few years ago, upon 
the erection of a new sessions house on Clerken- 
well Green,) retained the name of Hicks' Hail. 

The Capels, Earls of Essex, are descended 
from Sir William Capel, draper, Lord Mayor 
in 1503. He first set up a cage in every ward 
of London, for the punishment of idle people. 
It is probable that he had his mansion on the 
site of the present Stock Exchange, in Capel 
Court, so called after him. 

Michael Dormer, mercer, Mayor in 1542, 
was the ancestor of the Lords Dormer. 

Edw^ard Osborne, was apprentice to Sir 
William Hewet, clothworker. About the year 
1536, when his master lived in one of those 
tremendous houses on London bridge, a servant 
maid was playing with his only daughter in her 
arms, in a window over the water, and accident- 
ally dropped the child. Young Osborne, who was 
witness to the misfortune, instantly sprung into 
the river, and beyond all expectations brought 
her safe to her terrified family. When she was 
marriageable, several persons of rank paid their 
addresses to her, and among others the Earl of 
Shrewsbury; but Sir William gratefully declined 
in favour of Osborne. — " Osborne saved her,^^ 
said he, " and Osborne shall enjoy her,'' In 
her right he possessed a most ample fortune. 
Ff 2 



220 LAST MOMENTS OF aUEEN CAROLTNE. 

He became sherifF of London in 1575, and Lord 
Mayor in 1583, and from his loins sprang the 
Dukes of Leeds. 

From Sir William Craven, merchant 
tailor. Mayor in 1611, sprung the gallant Earl 
Craven, who was his eldest son, and was greatly 
distinguished by his actions in the service of the 
unfortunate Elector Palatine, by his attachment 
to the Dowager, and his marriage with that 
illustrious Princess. 

Lord Viscount Dudley and Ward is 
descended from William Ward, a wealthy gold- 
smith in London, and jeweller to Henrietta 
Maria, queen of Charles the first. His son 
Humble Ward, married Frances, grand-daughter 
of Edward Sutton, Lord Dudley ; who, on the 
death of her grand-father, became Baroness 
Dudley ; and he himself was created in 1643, 
Lord Ward of Birming^ham. 



LAST MOMENTS OF QUEEN 
CAROLINE. 

A LITTLE before the Queen died she asked 
the physician who was in attendance, " How 
long can this last ?'* And on his answering ** Your 
majesty will soon be eased of your pains ;" she 
replied" The sooner the better!" The queen 



THE BRITONS, &0. 221 

then repeated a prayer of her own composing*, in 
which there was such a flow of natural eloquence, 
as demonstrated the vigour of a great and good 
mind. When her speech began to falter, and 
she seemed expiring, she desired to be raised up 
in her bed, and fearing that nature would not 
hold out long enough without artificial support 
she called to have water sprinkled upon her, and 
a little after desired it might be repeated. She 
then with the greatest composure and presence 
of mind, requested her weeping relations to kneel 
down and pray for her. Whilst they were read- 
ing gome prayers, she exclaimed ** Pray aloud, 
that I may hear," and after the Lord's prayer was 
concluded, in which she joined as well as she 
was able, said " So," and waving her hand, lay 
down and expired. 



THE BRITONS, 



ACCORDING TO THE GREEK AND LATIN 
CLASSICS. 

J3TRABO observes in his Geography, that 
**the woods are their towns; for having fenced 
round a wide circular space with trees hewn 
down, they there place their huts, and fix stalls 
for their cattle ; but not of long duration. They 
have dwellings of a round form, constructed ol 



222 THE BRITONS, ACCORIUNG TO THE 

poles and wattled work, with very high pointed 
covering's of bearas united at a point/' 

Diodorus Siculiis asserts, that '* they inhabit 
very wretched dwellings, composed for the most 
part of reeds (or straw) and wood." 

Caesar thus describes, not Londinium, but the 
capital of Cassivellaunus : " The Britons call a 
place, a town, when they have fortified thick 
impassable woods, by means of a vallum and 
fosse, or a high bank and a ditch ; in which sort 
of a place they are accustomed to assemble to- 
gether, to avoid the invasion of enemies." 

Tacitus describing the strong holds, to which 
Caractacus resorted, observes : ** They then 
fortified themselves on steep mountains; and, 
where-ever there was any possibility of access in 
any part, he constructed a great bank of stones, 
like a vallum, ^* 

The curious reader is referred to the first 
volume of King's Munimenta Antiqua, for prints 
and plans, both of the Welsh houses and fortresses, 
of which some are yet entire and others in ruins, 
in every part of England, Scotland, Wales, 
and Ireland. No book, either in our tongue, or 
in any of the European languages, is so complete 
and satisfactory on this interesting and domestic 
subject : the prints are excellent. 

Diodorus Siculus also notices that the Britons 
laid up their corn in subterranean repositories, 
whence they used to take a portion every day ; 



GREEK AND LATIN CLASSICS. 223 

and having- bruised and dried the grain, made a 
kind of food from it of immediate use/' Martin 
in his description of the Western Isles, (p. 204.) 
describes this sort of diet, and the quick mode 
of preparing" it, as yet continued. King, in 
the 48th and following* pages of his first volume, 
has detected^ and delineated these rude monuments 
of our ancestors. 

It is highly curious to trace the appearance of 
the persons of our forefathers and their manners. 
Csesar remarks that they painted themselves with 
vitriim, or woad ; and Herodian, that " some of 
them on the sea-coast punctured or tattooed* their 

* The practice of tattooing is of great antiquity, and has 
been common to numerous nations in Turkey, Asia, the 
Southern parts of Europe, and perhaps to a great portion of 
the inhabitants of the earth. It is still retained among some 
of the Moorish tribes, who are, probably, descendants of 
those who, formerly, were subjected to the Christians of 
Africa, and who to avoid paying taxes, like the Moors, 
thus imprinted crosses upon their skins, that they might pass 
for Christians. This custom, which originally might serve 
to distinguish tribes by their religion, or from each other, 
became afterwards a mode of decoration that was habitually 
retained, when all remembrance of its origin was effaced. 

It may bo inferred that the Canaanites and the other 
nations of the East, were in the habit of tattooing their skins, 
because Moses, (Levit. xix, 28.) expressly enjoins the Israel- 
ites not to imprint any marks upon their bodies, in imitation 
of the heathens. 

The ancient inhabitants of the British Islands, painted 
their skins in various grotesque figures, with the juice of 



'22i THE BRITONS, ACCORDING TO THE 

bodies with figures resembling* various kinds of 
animals; in consequence of which they also went 
without garments, that they might not cover, nor 
conceal, these marks. The other natives were, 
in general, clad with skins. They had long lank 
hair, but were shorn in every part of the body, 
except the head and upper lip. 

A wretched substitute for salt was obtained 
merely by pouring sea-water on the embers of 
burning wood. 

-vToad. This custom of tattooing Mas in use both by the 
Britons and their first invaders, the BelgaB, and I believe it 
•nill be found, that the warriors of all those nations which 
practised tattooing, invariably threw off their garments in the 
hour of battle. The name of Picts, is said, though erroneously, 
to have been given by the Romans to the Caledonians, who 
possessed the East coast of Scotland, from their painting their 
bodies. This circumstance has made some imagine that the 
Picts were of British extraction, and a different race of men 
from the Scots. That more of the Britons who fled north- 
ward, from the oppression and tyranny of the Romans, 
settled in the low lands of Scotland, than among the Scots 
of the mountains, may be easily imagined, from the very 
nature of the country. It was these people who introduced 
painting among the Picts. From this circumstance, somt 
antiquaries af&rm, proceeded the name of the latter, to dis- 
tinguish them from the Scots, who never had that art among 
them, and from the Britons, who discontinued the practice of 
tattooing after the Roman conquest. 

The inhabitants of the South Sea Islands, at this day, 
paint upon their bodies various grotesque figures, for the 
purpose of striking terror into their enemies, in the dav 
A battle. J. S. 



GREEK AND I.ATIN CLASSICS. 225 

The Irish drank the blood of animals and even 
of their enemies. 

King-, in the latter half of the first volume? 
(Munim, Ant.) gives prints of the altars, or 
Cromlechs, yet entire, in many situations in 
Ireland, the Highlands, and England, on which 
human victims were cruelly murdered. 

The Druids were richly clad ; some of them 
even wore golden chains, or collars, about their 
necks and arms ; and had their garments dyed 
with various colours, and adorned with gold. 
Chains also both of iron and gold, were worn by 
some of the chieftains and nobler ranks. These 
facts will appear so incredible, that the reader 
must be informed, that in most of the tumuli, or 
old British graves, described by King, these orna- 
ments are found in our days. It is a remarkable 
omission in Mr. King, that he did not quote the 
three verses from the fourteenth chapter of 
Isaiah so descriptive of the Babylonian regal 
tumuli, similar to the British : " All the kings 
of the nations lie down in glory, each in his own 
sepulchre : To meet thee, O Sennacherib, 
Hades rouseth his mighty dead : he maketh them 
rise up from their thrones. All of them shall 
accost thee, and shall say unto thee. Art thou 
become weak as we ? Art thou made like unto 
us ? Is then thy pride brought down to the 
grave ? Is the vermin become thy couch, and 
the earth-worm thy covering ?" 



S26 THE BRITONS, &C. 

Strabo, at the end of his third book, says, that 
" the Cassiterides, or Islands of Tin, were inha- 
bited by men dressed in black garments, in 
tunics descending* to the feet, a girdle around 
their breast ; walking erect with a staff in their 
hand 5 and permitting the beard to grow like 
that of a goat. They subsist on their cattle, in 
general spending an erratic pastoral life/' 

Some of the common order of Britons wore, 
instead of the skins of beasts, very thick coarse 
wrappers made of wool ; a sort of blanket or rug, 
fastened about the neck with a piece of sharp 
pointed stick. They used also a coarse, slit, short 
vest, with sleeves ; it barely reached down to the 
knees. 

As armour, the Britons had a long two-handed 
sword, hanging by a chain on the right hand side ; 
a great long wooden shield as tall as a man ; 
long spears ; and a sort of missile wooden instru- 
ment, like a javelin, longer than an arrow, which 
they darted merely by the hand ; modern wri- 
ters call these two last mentioned, Celts , fixed on 
the end of staves and sticks. Some of them used 
slings for stones, others had breast plates, made 
of plates of iron, with hooks, or with wreathed 
chains : some had helmets of different forms. 
Many went to battle nearly naked, and some 
wound chains of iron around their necks and loins. 

They generally lay and reposed themselves on 
the bare ground, yet most of them ate their food 



THE SEVEN SLEEPERS. 227 

sitting on seats. A very beautiful print is given 
by Mr. King of their various dresses. The plaid 
seems to be derived from them. The coins of the 
old British, which are engraven in Speed, in Bor- 
lase's Cornwall, in Gough's edition of Camden's 
Britannia, and in Plot's History of Oxfordshire, 
will explain these descriptions of the classics. 
Even Julius Caesar had noticed that the Britons 
used either brass money, or iron circular coins 
reduced to a standard weight. In the scale of 
civilization, therefore, the ancient Britons were 
as advanced in the era of Caesar, as the Romans 
themselves at the expulsion of their kings ; as 
the Grecians in the age of Homer ; as the Mex- 
icans at the Spanish conquest ; and as the 
modern Tartars.* 



THE SEVEN SLEEPERS. 

Among the insipid legends of ecclesiastical 
history, one of the most memorable is that of the 
Seven Sleepers,whose imaginary date corresponds 
with the reign of the younger Theodosius and 
the conquest of Africa by the Vandals, or some- 
time about the year 440. When the Emperor 
Decius persecuted the Christians, seven noble 

* From the Classical Journal, 
G ? 2 



1: I 



228 THE SEVEN SLEEPERS. 

youths of EphesQS concealed themselves in a spa- 
cious cavern in the side of an adjacent mountain ; 
where they were doomed to perish by the tyrant, 
who crave orders that the entrance should be firmly 
secured with a pile of huge stones. They imme- 
diately fell into a deep slumber, which was 
miraculously prolonged, without injuring the 
powers of life, during a period of one hundred 
and eighty seven years. At the end of that time, 
the slaves of Adolius, to whom the inheritance of 
the mountain had descended, removed the stones 
to supply materials for some rustic edifice; the 
light of the sun darted into the cavern, and the 
Seven Sleepers were permitted to awake. After 
a slumber, as they thought of a few hours, they 
were pressed by the calls of hunger ; and resolved 
that Jamblichus, one of their number, should 
secretly return to the city, to purchase bread for the 
use of his companions. The youth, if we may still 
employ that appellation, could no longer recog- 
nise the once familiar aspect of his native country ; 
and his surprize was increased by the appearance of 
a large cross triumphantly erected over the prin- 
cipal gate of Ephesus. His singular dress and ob- 
solete language, confounded the baker, to whom 
he offered an ancient medal of Decius as the cur- 
rent coin of the empire ; and Jamblichus, on the 
suspicion of a secret treasure, was dragged be- 
fore the judge. Their mutual enquiries produced 
the amazing discovery that two centuries were 



THE SEVEN SLEEPERS. 229 

almost elapsed since Jamblichus and his friends 
had escaped from the rage of a Pagan tyrant. The 
Bishop of Ephesus, the clergy, the magistrates, 
the people, and as it is said, the Emperor Theo- 
dosius himself, hastened to visit the cavern of* the 
Seven {Sleepers, who bestowed their benediction, 
related their story, and at the same instant peace- 
ably expired. The origin of this marvellous 
fable cannot be ascribed to the pious fraud and 
credulity of the modern Greeks, since the authen- 
tic tradition may be traced within half a century 
of the supposed miracle. James of Sarug, a 
Syrian bishop, who was born only two years 
after the death of the younger Theodosius, has de- 
voted one of his two hundred and thirty homilies 
to the praise of the young men of Ephesus. 
Their legend, before the end of the sixth cen- 
tury, was translated from the Syriac into the 
Latin language, by the care of Gregory of Tours. 
The hostile communions of the East preserve 
their memory with equal reverence ; and their 
names are honourably inscribed in the Roman, 
the Abyssinian, and the Russian Calendar. 
Nor has their reputation been confined to the 
Christian world. This popular tale, which 
Mahomet might learn when he drove his camels 
to the fairs of Syria, is introduced as a divine re- 
velation, into the Koran. The story of the Seven 
Sleepers has been adopted, and adorned, by 



m 



230 JOHN RAY. 

the nations, from Bengal to Africa, who profess 
the Mahometan religion ; and some vestiges of a 
similar tradition have been discovered in the re- 
mote extremities of Scandinavia. 



JOHN RAY, 

THE NATURALIST. 



JKAY was the son of a blacksmith, at Black 
Notley, in Essex, where he was born in 1628. 
He received his education at Braintree school, at 
Catharine Hall, and afterwards at Trinity 
College, Cambridge. His intense studies, re- 
quiring country air and exercise, occasioned his 
predilection for botany ; his first rambles in 
search of plants were confined in extent, but 
subsequently diverged throughout England and 
Wales ; and at length passing the channel he 
visited many parts of Europe. His books of 
instruction were the works of Johnson and 
Parkinson, and the Phytologia Britannica. His 
friend and companion, Francis Willoughby,* 

* This eminent naturalist and excellent man, was justly 
admired both at home and abroad for his virtues and know* 
ledge in every brancli of human learning, more particularly 
in natural history. He was the son of Sir Francis Willoughby, 
Knt. of Wollaton Hall in the county of Nottingham. Ob. 



JOHN RAY. 231 

was a gentleman as amiable as scientific, their 
souls seeming" to be blended together. Ray 
having been ordained, did not chuse to accept of 
the emoluments of the church, with which he 
did not entirely unite; but just before his death, 
when it was too late to gain, he became recon- 
ciled to it. Mr. Willoughby, who died in 1672, 
left him an annuity of sixty pounds, but it does 

ser?ing in the busy and inquisitive age in which he lived, that 
the history of animated nature had in a great measure been 
neglected, he made the study and illustration thereof his 
unceasing object. For the promotion of this branch of 
science he went abroad with Mr. Ray, for the purpose of 
searching out aud describing the several species and produc. 
tions of nature. He travelled over most parts of France, 
Spain, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, in all which 
countries he was so diligent and successful, that not many 
sorts of animals described by others escaped his observation. 
He drew them with a pencil, and they were afterwards en- 
graven on copper-plates, at the expense of his widow. His 
labours were printed in latin under the title of Ornithclogice 
libri tres, S^c. London, 1676," folio. This work was after- 
wards translated into English by Mr. Ray, with an appen- 
dix, and printed at London, in 1678. Mr. Willoughby 
also wrote the*' History of Fishes," which was published by 
Mr. Ray, at London, in 1686, in folio. He likewise printed 
several papers in the Philosophical Transactions. Mr, 
Willoughby died on the third of July, 1672, leaving issue by 
his wife, Emma, daughter and co-heir of Sir Henry Bernard, 
Knt, two Sons, Francis and Thomas, and one daughter 
Cassandra, married to the Duke of Chandos. The second 
son Thomas was in 1712 created Lord Middleton, from 
whom is descended the present peer of that title. 



l>3-2 JOHN RAY. 

not appear what other property he possessed, 
except his fellowship of Trinity. Though the 
o-eneratious which have followed him have pro- 
duced a Linnaeus, a BufFon, and a Pennant, yet 
Ray*s fame is too well established ever to be sup- 
planted. He was a wise, a learned, as well as a 
pious and modest man, and ever ready to impart 
that knowledge which he had taken so much 
pains to acquire. He died in 1705 with a devout 
humility that had ever distinguished him, wishing- 
that he had spent much more of his life in the 
immediate service of his Creator. There was 
no task too arduous for Ray ; if Lister, a con- 
temporary naturalist, would have gone to the 
bottom of the ocean for a shell, Ray would have 
climbed to the extreme point of the Alps for a 
new plant. In the church-yard of Black Notley, 
his native place, there is a long and elegant 
inscription to the memory of this great man, and 
in the library of Trinity College, there is a fine 
marble bust of him, in company with Bacon and 
oth(r splendid ornaments of that magnificent 
foundation. 



LONDON BANKERS. 233 



LONDON BANKERS, 

AND THEIR ORIGIN. 

JL HE company of Goldsmiths, in London, 
appeared as a fraternity, as early as 1 180, but 
it was in the reign of Edward the third, that 
they were first incorporated. They became, in 
time, the bankers of the capital. The Lombards 
were the first and greatest, and most of the 
money contracts, in old times, passed through 
their hands. Many of our monarchs were obliged 
to them for money. — The three blue balls, now 
used by pawnbrokers, but converted by them 
into golden ones, are, in reality, the arms of the 
Lombards. 

Lombard-street, in the metropolis, took its name 
from being the residence of the LomF)ards, the 
great money-changers and usurers of early times. 
They came out of Italy into this kingdom before 
the year 1274; at length their extortions be- 
came so great, that Edward the third seized on 
their estates ; perhaps the necessity of furnishing 
himself with money for his Flemish expedi- 
tion, might have urged him to this step. They 
seem quickly to have repaired their loss; for 
complaint was soon after made against them, 
for persisting ia their practices. They were so 

H h 



HM LONDON BANKERS. 

opulent in the days of Henry the fourth, as to be 
able to furnish hira with money, but they took 
care to get the customs mortgaged to them, by 
way of security. 

They continued in Lombard-street till the reign 
of queen Elizabeth, and to this day it is filled 
with the shops of eminent bankers. The shop of 
tlie great Sir Thomas Gresham stood in Lombard- 
street; it is now occupied by Messrs. Martin and 
8tone, bankers, who are still in possession of the 
original sign of that illustrious person, the 
Grasshopper. 

The business of goldsmiths was confined to 
the buying and selling of plate, and foreign coins 
of gold and silver, melting them, and coining 
others at the mint. The banking was acciden*- 
tal and foreign to their institution. 

Regular banking by private persons resulted 
in 1G43 from the calamity of the times, when a 
seditious spirit was incited by the acts of the 
parliamentary leaders. The merchants and 
tradesmen who before trusted their cash to their 
servants and apprentices found that mode no 
longer safe ; neither did they dare to leave it in 
the mint at the tower, by reason of the distresses 
of majesty itself, which before was a place of 
public deposit. \\\ the year 1645, they first 
[)i;iccd their cash in the hands of goldsmiths, 
who then began publicly to exercise the two 
professions of goldsmiths and bankers. Even of 



LONDON BANKERS. 2.3-5 

late years there were several very eminent bank- 
ers who kept the goldsmith's shop -, but they 
were more frequently separated. 

The first regular banker was Mr. Francis 
Child, goldsmith, who began business after the 
restoration. He was the father of the profession^ 
a person of large fortune, of most respectable 
character, and he was knighted by the king. He 
lived in Fleet-street, in the house adjoining 
Temple-bar, where the banking business is still 
carried on in the same firm, though by different 
persons. Granger, in his Biographical History, 
mentions that Mr. Child succeeded Mr. Back- 
well,* a banker in the time of Charles the 
second, noted for his integrity, abilities, and in- 
dustry ; who was ruined by the shutting up of 
the Exchequer in 1672. f His books were placed 
in the hands of Mr. Child, and still remain in the 
family. 

* He was an alderman of London, and after the Ex- 
chequer was shut retired to Holland, where he died, and was 
brought over to be interred in the church of Tyringham, in 
Buckinghamshire, where he lies embalmed. A glass is placed 
over his face, so that it is likely he may even be seen at this 
time. There is a small portrait of him at Tyringliam House, 
in which he is represented in long hair and a flowered gown, 
with a table by him. 

+ A part of the national debt, amounting to £664,263, 
is as old as this iniquitous transaction of Charles the second 
and his ministers. This sum was all that those persons re- 
ceired, who had placed their property and their confidence 
in that monarch, for the loss of j£l, 328,526, and 26 years 
interest thereon at 6 per cent, about j£2, 100,000 more» 



236 LONDON BANKERS. 

The next ancient shop was that possessed at 
present by Messrs. Snow and Co. in the 
Strand, a few doors westward of Mr. Child's, 
who were g-oldsmiths of consequence in the 
latter part of the same reign. Mr. Gay cele- 
brates the predecessor of these gentlemen, for 
his sagacity in escaping the ruin of the fatal year 
1720, in his epistle to Mr. Thomas Snow, gold- 
smith, near Temple-bar : — 

O thou whose penetrative wisdom found 

The South Sea rocks and shelves where thousands drowned. 

When credit sunk and commerce gasping lay, 

Thou stoodst ; nor sent'st one bill unpaid away. 

To the westward of Temple-bar the only other 
house was that of Messrs. Middleton and Camp- 
bell, goldsmiths, who flourished in 1692, and is 
now continued with great credit by Mr. Coutts. 
From thence to the extremity of the west end of 
the town there were none till the year 1756, when 
the respectable name of Backwell rose again, con- 
joined with those of Darel, Hart, and Croft, who 
with great reputation opened their shop (after- 
wards the house of Devaynes, Noble, and Co.) in 
PallmaJl. 



ELUCIDATION OF THE OKNAMENTS, kc. 237 



ELUCIDATION 

OF THE ORNAMENTS WITH WHICH THE 
GREEKS AND ROMANS ADORNED THE 
HUMAN HEAD ON COINS AND MEDALS. 



THE DIADEM. 



M. HE chief of these ornaments is the diadem, 
or vitta, which was a ribband worn about the 
head, and tied in a floating knot behind. This 
was anciently the simple, but superlative badge 
of king-ly power. It is observable upon the Greek 
monarchical medals, from the earliest ages, to the 
last, without any other ornament, and is almost 
an infallible sign of kingly power, and that the 
portrait, if there be no other characteristic, is that 
of a prince. In the Roman coins it is seen on the 
Consular ones with Numa and Ancus ; but never 
afterwards till the time of Licinius. So great 
an aversion had the Romans to this kingly distinc- 
tion, that their emperors had for more than two 
centuries worn the radiated crown, peculiar to 
the gods, before they dared to assume the 
diadem, which was considered as the symbol of 
tyranny. In the family of Constantine, the 
diadem becomes common, though not with tiie 



238 ELUCIDATION OF THE ORNAMENTS, &C. 

ancient simplicity, being ornamented on either 
edge with a row of pearls, and various other deco- 
rations. 

The Greek queens used the diadem, but the 
Roman empresses never appear with it ; however, 
the variety of their head dresses more than com- 
pensates for the want of this ornament. 

THE RADIATED CROWN. 

The radiated crown was, at first, as on the 
posthumous coins of Augustus, a mark of deifi- 
cation, and in little more than a century after, 
was put upon most of the emperors' heads on 
their several medals. 

THE CROWN OF LAUREL. 

The crown of laurel was at first the honorary 
prize of conquerors, but was afterwards com- 
monly worn, at least on their medals, by all the 
Roman emperors, from Julius C^sar, v^ho 
was permitted by the senate to wear it always, 
to hide the baldness of his forehead. This per- 
haps gave rise to the first emperors always ap- 
pearing with it on their coins, a circumstance 
continued even to our times, and looking at its 
origin is now a little laughable. The laurel 
employed by the ancients in forming their crowns, 
is apparently what we term the Alexandrian 
laurel, a most beautiful evergreen, of a fine 
tender verdure. In the lower empire the laurel 
is often held by a hand above the head as a mark 
of piety. 



ELUCIDATION OF THE ORNAMENTS, &C. 239 
THE ROSTRAL CROWN. 

Agrippa appears on his coins with the rostral 
crown, a sign of naval victory or command, 
being made of gold, in resemblance of prows of 
ships, tied together. 

THE MURAL CROWN. 

Agrippa is likewise seen with the mural or 
turretted crown, the prize of first ascending the 
walls of an enemy's city. 

THE CIVIC CROWN. 

The oaken or civic crown is frequent on 
reverses, as of Galba and others ; and was the 
badge of having saved the life of a citizen, or of 
many citizens. 

THE HELMET. 

The helmet appears on coins; as in those of 
Macedon under the Romans, which have a head 
of Alexander, sometimes covered with a helmet. 
Probus also has often the helmet on his coins ; 
and Constantine the first, has helmets of diflferent 
forms curiously ornamented. 

THE NIMBUS OR GLORY. 

The nimbus or glory, now peculiar to the 
saints, was formerly applied to emperors, A 
nimbus appears round the head of Constantine 
the second, in a gold coin of that prince ; and of 
Flavia Maxima Fausta, in a gold medallion ; 
and of Justinian in another. But the idea is as 
ancient as the reign of Augustus, and is found in 
Roman authors, before it appeared on coins. 



240 ELUCIDATION OF THE ORNAMENTS, &C. 



Oiselius gives a coin of Antoninus Pius, with the 
nimbus, but this however is doubtful, and may 
have been some flaw in the coin from whicji he 
engraved his representation. 

OTHER ORNAMENTS OF THE HEAD. 

Besides the diadem, the Greek princes some- 
times appear with the laurel crown. The 
Arsacidae, or kings of Parthia, wear a kind of 
sash round the head, with their hair in rows of 
curls like a wig. Tigranes and the kings of 
Armenia, wear the tiara, a singular kind of cap, 
but the well known badge of imperial power in 
the ancient eastern world. Xerxes, a petty prince 
of Armenia, appears in a coin extant of him in a 
conical cap, with a diadem around it. Juba, the 
father, has a singular crown, like a conical cap, all 
hung with pearls. 

The successors of Alexander assumed by way 
of distinction, diff'erent symbols of the Deity, to 
be observed on the busts of their medals, such as 
the lion's skin of Hercules, which surrounds the 
head of the first Seleucus ; the horn placed 
behind the ear, an image of their strength and 
power, or of their being the successors of Alex- 
ander, called the son of Jupiter Ammon 3 the 
wing placed in like manner behind the ear, 
jsymbolic of the rapidity of their conquests, or of 
their being descendants from the god Mercury. 

Some authors, however, have doubted if all 
these heads be not of gods, except those with 



ELUCIDATION OP THE ORNAMENTS, &C. 241 

the horn. Eckhel observes, that even the horn 
and diadem belong to Bacchus, as on a coin of 
Nuceria Alfaterna. Bacchus, according to 
Diodorus Siculus, invented the diadem, to cure 
his head-aches, and was horned like his father 
Jupiter Amnion. The only king who appears 
on coins, according to Eckhel, with the horn, is 
Lysimachus. Pyrrhus had a crest of goats' horns 
to his helmet, as we are informed by Plutarch, in 
his life, and the goat was the symbol of Macedon. 
It is likely that the successors of Alexander took 
this badge of the horn in consequence. 

Besides the distinctions of supreme power, or 
honorary reward, there are other symbolic orna- 
ments of the head, observable on some Roman 
coins. Such is the veil, or, more properly, the 
toga drawn over the head, to be seen on the 
busts of Julius Caesar, when Pontifex Maximus, 
and others. This shews that the person bore 
the pontificate or the augurship ; the augurs 
having a particular gown, called laena, with 
which they covered their heads, when employed 
in observing omens. Latterly the veil is only a 
mark of consecration, and is common in coins of 
empresses, as Faustina, Mariniana, and others. 
In the coins of Claudius Gothicus we first find it 
as a mark of the consecration of an emperor ; 
and it continued in those of Constantius the first, 
Maximian the first, and Constantine the first. 

The remarkable part of the Roman head dross 
I i 



242 ELUCIDATION OF THE ORNAMENTS, &C. 

among the ladies, was the sphendona, or sling*, 
on the crown of the head ; answering to the 
modern hair cushion. But it was of gold, and 
4JO prominent as to be even remarkable in a coin. 
The hair appears in many fashions, as now. Some- 
times the bust of an empress is supported by a 
crescent, to imply that she was the moon, as her 
husband was the sun of the state. 

Generally, only the bust is given on ancient 
coins ; but sometimes half the body or more. In 
the latter case the hands often appear, with tokens 
of majesty in them. Such is the globe, said to 
have been introduced by Augustus, to express 
possession of the world. The sceptre, sometimes 
confounded with the consular staff. The roll of 
parchment, symbolic of legislative power; and 
the handkerchief expressing that of the public 
games, where the emperor gave the signal. 
Some princes even hold the thunderbolt, shewing 
that their power was equal to that of Jupiter in 
heaven. Others hold an image of victory. 

Most queens of Egypt, on their coins, have the 
sceptre. It appears at the top of their head ; 
and would seem part of the dress, were it not 
that in other coins, it passes beneath the neck 
transversely, so that both ends appear. 

The victors, at the sacred games among the 
ancients, had bound round the head, an orna- 
ment called anademoy which has sometimes 
been confounded with the diadem worn by the 
ancient Persian kings. 



THE TRADESCANTS. 24S 



THE TRADESCANTS. 

X HE Tradescants, father and son, were among- 
the first eminent g-ardeners, and were the very 
first collectors of natural history in this kingdom. 
John Tradescant the elder was, according to 
Anthony Wood, a Fleming, or a Dutchman. 
-We are informed by Parkinson, that he had 
travelled into most parts of Europe, and into- 
Barbary, and from some emblems remaining 
upon his monument in Lambeth church yard, it 
appears that he had visited Greece, Egypt, and 
other Eastern countries. 

In his travels, he is supposed to have collected 
not only plants and seeds, but most of those 
curiosities of every sort which formed his collec- 
tion, which afterwards became celebrated, and 
is now the Ashmolean museum, at Oxford. 

When he first settled in this kingdom, cannot 
at this distance of time, be ascertained; perhaps 
it was towards the latter end of the reign of queen 
Elizabeth, or the beginning of that of king James 
the first. His portrait, engraven by Hollar, 
before the year 1656, represents him as a person 
very far advanced in years, and seems to coun- 
tenance this opinion. 

He lived in a large house at South Lambeth, 
li 2 



244 THE TRADESCANTS. 

where, there is reason to think, his museum was 
frequently visited by persons of rank, who 
became benefactors thereto; among these were 
king Charles the first, to whom he was gardener, 
Henrietta Maria, his queen. Archbishop Laud, 
George, Duke of Buckingham, Robert and 
William Cecil, Earls of Salisbury, and many 
other persons of distinction. 

John Tradescant may, therefore, justly be 
considered as the earliest collector in this king- 
dom,^ of every thing that was curious in natural 
history, namely, minerals, birds, fishes, insects, 
&c. &;c. He had also a good collection of coins 
and medals, besides a great variety of extraor- 
dinary rarities. Some of the plants which grew 
^n his garden are, if not totally extinct in this 
country, at least become very uncommon. 

This able man, by his great industry, made it 
manifest, in the very infancy of botany, as a 
science, that there is scarcely any plant existing 
in the known world, that will not, with proper 
care, thrive in this kingdom. The time of his 
death cannot be ascertained, no mention being 
made of it in the register of Lambeth church. 

John Tradescant the son, and his wife, joined 
in a deed of gift, by which their friend Elias 
Ashmole was entitled to this collection after the 
decease of the former. On that event taking 

* Tradescant was the first English collector of curiosities 
iu a private rank. Thoresby was the second. Gough's Topogr, 



THE TRADESCANTS. 245 

place, in 1662, it was accordingly claimed by 
him, but the widow Tradescant refusing" to 
deliver it, was compelled so to do by a decree 
of the court of Chancery. She was, a few years 
after, found drowned, in a pond, in her own 
garden. 

His house at South Lambeth, then called 
Tradescant's Ark,* thus coming into the pos- 
session of Ashmole, he came to reside there in 
1674, and added a noble room to it, adorning 
the chimney with his arms, impaling those of 
Sir William Dugdale, whose daughter was his 
third wife. Ashmole was much respected by 
his contemporaries, and was frequently visited 
at South Lambeth by persons of very exalted 
rank, particularly by the ambassadors of foreign 
princes, to whom he had presented his book on 
the Order of the Garter. 

It is well known that Tradescant's collection 
was given by Ashmole to the University of 
Oxford, where it forms the principal part of the 
museum that goes by his name, the horse, in 
which it is contained, having been built for its 
reception, t 

* The late James West, Esq. told Mr. Bull, thatoDeof 
the family of Roelans^ of which there are four or five prints 
by Hollar, lived a long while at Lambeth, in the house that 
afterwards belonged to Tradescant, to whom Roclans sold it. 
Granger's B. //. 2. 371. 

+ In the year 1656 the younger Tradescant, published a 
small volume, entitled ^' Museum Tradescantianum, or a 



246 THE TRADESCANTS. 

A monument was erected in the south east 
part of Lambeth church-yard, in 1662, by Hester, 
the relict of John Tradescant, the son, to the 
memory of her husband, and the other members 
of his family. 

This, once beautiful monument has suffered 
so much by the weather, that no just idea can 
now, on inspection, be formed of the north and 
south sides ; but this defect is supplied from very 
fine drawings* in the Pepysian library, at Cam« 
bridg'e. On the east side is Tradescant's arms ; 
on the west a hydra, and under it a skull; on 
the south, broken columns, Corinthian capitals, 
&c. supposed to be ruins in Greece, or some 
other Eastern country ; and on the north, a 
crocodile, shells, &c. and a viewof some Eg-yp- 
tian buildings ; various figures of trees, &c. in 
relievo, adorn the four corners of the monument. 
In a visit made by Sir W. Watson and Dr. 
Mitchell to Tradescant*s garden, in 1749, an 

Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth. London^ 
1656, small octavo." This book is divided into two parts, 
the first containing a catalogue of the museum, and the second 
an enume ration of the plants, shrubs, and trees, growing in 
the garden at South Lambeth. Among the natural curiosities 
here preserved are *' a dragon's egg — the claw of the bird 
Rocky which, as authors report, is able to trusse an elephant," 
&c. &c. 

* These drawings are engraven in the Philosophical Trans, 
▼ol. 63, p. 88; and printed from the same plates, in Bibl. 
Topogr. Brit. toI. 2. in Dr. Ducarel's Hist, of Lambeth. 



THE TRADESCANTS. 247 

account of which, is inserted in Philos. Trans, 
vol. xlvi. p. J 60, it appears that it had been 
many years totally neglected, and the house 
belonging to it empty and ruined, but though the 
garden was quite covered with weeds, there 
remained among them manifest footsteps of its 
founder.* They found there the Borago latifolia 
sempervirens of Caspar Bauhine ; Polyyonatum 
vulgar e latifolium, C. B ; Aristolochia dematitis 
recta, C B, and Dracontium of Dodoens. 
There were then remaining two trees of the 
Arbutus, which from their being so long used to 
our winters, did not suffer by the severe cold of 
1739—40, when most of their kind were killed 
in England. In the orchard there was a tree of 
the Rhamnus catharticus, about 20 feet high, and 
nearly a foot in diameter. There are at present 
no traces of this garden remaining. 

The Tradescants were usually called Trade- 
skin by their contemporaries, and the name is 
uniformly so spelled in the parish register of 
Lambeth, and by Flatman the painter, who in a 
poem mentions Tradescant*s collection ; 

* Tradescant^s was the next botanical garden ia England 
after Gerard's. 

Gerard seems to hare been the first that cultWated a 
botanical garden. He had a large one near his house in 
Holborn, London, where he raised nearly eleven huadred 
different trees and plants. He published his history of plants 
in 1597 under the patronage of Lord Burleigh. His herbal 
iras republished in 1636 by Johnsou. 



248 THE TRADESCANTS. 

" Thus John Tradeskin starves our wond'ring eyes, 
" By boxing up his new-found rarities/* 

The following is a list of the portraits of the 
Tradescant family now in the Ashmolean Mu- 
seum ; both father and son are in these portraits 
called Sir John, though it does not appear that 
either of them were ever knighted. 

1. Sir John Tradescant, sen. a three quarters 
piece, ornamented with fruit, flowers, and 
garden roots. 

2. The same, after his decease. 

3. The same, a small three-quarters piece, in 
water colours. 

4. A large painting of his wife, son and 
daughter, quarter-length. 

5. Sir John Tradescant, junior, in his garden, 
with a spade in his hand, half length. 

6. The same with his wife, half length. 

7. The same, with his friend Zythepsa of 
Lambeth, a collection of shells, &c. upon a table 
before them. 

8. A large quarter piece inscribed Sir John 
Tradescant's second wife and son. 

These pictures have neither date nor painter's 
name. They are esteemed to be good portraits, 
but who the person was, who is called Zythepsa 
is not known. He is painted as if entering the 
room, and Sir John is shaking him by the hand. 

Hollar engraved two portraits of the Trades- 
cants, father and son, which are placed as 



ORANGE TREES. 249 

frontispieces to the little volume, mentioned in 
the preceding note. 

Granger (2. 370) says he saw a picture at a 
gentleman's house in Wiltshire, which was not 
unlike that of the deceased Tradescant, and the 
inscription was applicable to it : — 

Mortuus haud alio quain quo pater ore quiesti 
Quam facili frueris nunc quoque nocte doces. 



ORANGE TREES. 

Jl. HE first orange trees seen in England, are 
said to have been planted by Sir Francis Carew, 
at Beddington, in Surrey. Sir Francis died in 
1G07, aged 8J. Aubrey says they were brought 
from Italy by Sir Francis, but the editors of the 
Biographia Britannica speaking from a tradition 
preserved in the family, tell us that they were 
raised by him from the seeds of the first oranges 
which were imported into England by Sir 
Walter Raleigh, who had married his niece. 
The trees were planted in the open groimd, and 
were preserved in the winter by a moveable shed. 
They flourished about a century and a half, being 
destroyed by the hard frost in 1739—40. 

In the transactions of the Linnaean Society 
there are some notices relating to the progress of 
botany in England, written by the late eminent 

K k 



25{) ORANGE TREES. 

naturalist, Peter CoUinson. Speaking of the 
orange trees at Beddington he says — " In the 
reign of queen Elizabeth the first orange and 
lemon trees were introduced into England by 
two curious gentlemen, one of them Sir Nicholas 
Carew, at Beddington. They were planted in 
the natural ground, but against every winter an 
artificial covering was raised for their protection. 
1 have seen them some years ago* in great per- 
fection. But this apparatus going to deca}', 
without due consideration a green-house of brick 
work wa:s built all round them, and left on the 
top uncovered in the summer. I visited them a 
year or two after in their new habitation, and to 
my great concern found some dyeing, and all de- 
clining ; for although there were windows on 
the south side, they did not thrive in their con- 
finement ; but being kept damp, with the rains, 
and wanting a free, air}^, full sun, all the growing 
months of summer, they languished, and at last 
all died. 

'* A better fate has attended the other fine 
parcel of orange trees, &c. brought over at the 
same time, by Sir Robert Mansell, at Margam 
in South Wales. My nephew counted 80 trees 
of citrons, limes, burgamots, Seville and China 
orange-trees, planted in great cases all ranged in 
a row before the green-house. This is the finest 
sight of its kind in England. He had the 
* This was written in the year 1754. 



ARTICLES OP USE AND LUXtJRV, 2&1 

curiosit)' to measure one of them. A China 
orange measured in the extent of its branches 
fourteen feet. • A Seville orange-tree was four- 
teen feet high, the case included, and the stem 
twenty one inches round. A China orange-tree 
twenty two inches and a half in girt. 

" I visited the orangery at Margam, in the year 
1 766, in company with Mr. Lewis Thomas, a very 
sensible and attentive man, who told me that the 
orange-trees, &c. in that garden were intended 
as a present from the king of Spain to the king 
of Denmark ; and that the vessel in which they 
were shipped, being taken in the channel, the 
trees were made a present of to Sir Robert 
Mansell." 



ARTICLES OF USE AND LUXURY 

INTRODUCED INTO EUROPE BY THE 
ROMANS. 

TT HATEVER evils either reason or declama- 
tion have imputed to extensive empire, the power 
of Rome was attended with some beneficial con- 
sequences to mankind ; and the same freedom of 
intercourse which extended the vices, diffused 
likewise the improvements of social life. In the 
more remote ages of antiquity, the world was 
unequally divided. The east was in the imme- 
K k 2 



252 ARTICLES OF USE AND LUXURY. 

morial possession of arts and luxury ; whilst the 
west was inhabited by rude and warlike barbari- 
ans, who either disdained agriculture, or to whom 
it was totally unknown. Under the protection 
of an established government, the productions of 
happier climates, and the industry of more civi- 
lized nations were gradually introduced into the 
western countries of Europe, and the natives 
were encouraged, by an open and profitable com- 
merce, to multiply the former, as well as to im- 
prove the latter. It would be almost impossible 
to enumerate all the articles, either of the 
animal or vegetable kingdoms which were suc- 
cessively imported into Europe from Asia and 
Egypt ; it is only intended here to touch on a 
few of the principal heads. It is also not impro- 
bable that the Greeks and Phoenicians introduced 
some new arts and productions into the neigh- 
bourhood of Marseilles and Cadiz. 

1. Almost all the flowers, the herbs, and the 
fruits, that grow in our European gardens, are 
of foreign extraction, which in many cases, is 
betrayed even by their names ; the apple was a 
native of Italy, and when the Romans had tasted 
the richer flavour of the apricot, the peach, 
the pomegranate, the citron, and the orange, 
they contented themselves with applying to all 
these new fruits the common denomination of 
apple, discriminating them from each other by 
the additional epithet of their country. 



ARTICLES or USE AND LUXURY. 253 

2. In the time of Homer, the vine grew wild 
in the island of Sicily, and most probably in the 
adjacent continent; but it was not improved by 
the skill, nor did it afford a liquor grateful to the 
taste, of the savage inhabitants. A thousand 
years afterwards, Italy could boast, that of the 
fourscore most generous and celebrated wines, 
more than two thirds were produced from her 
soil. The blessing was soon communicated to 
the Narbonnese province of Gaul ; but so intense 
was the cold to the north of the Cevennes, that 
in the time of Strabo, it was thought impossible 
to ripen the grapes in those parts of Gaul. The 
intense cold of a Gallic winter was even prover- 
bial among the ancients. This difficulty, however, 
was gradually vanquished ; and there is some 
reason to believe that the vineyards of Burgundy 
are as old as the age of the Antonines. In the 
beginning of the fourth century, the orator Eu- 
menius speaks of the vines in the territory of 
Autun, which were decayed through age, and 
the first plantation of which was totally unknown. 

3, The olive, in the western world, followed 
the progress of peace, of which it was considered 
as the symbol. Two centuries after the foun- 
dation of Rome, both Italy and Africa were 
strangers to that useful plant; it was naturalized 
in those countries; and at length carried into the 
heart of Spain and Gaul. The timid errors of 
the ancients, that it required a certain degree of 



254 ARTICLES OF USE AND LUXURY. 

heat, and could only flourish in the neighbour- 
hood of the sea, were insensibly exploded by 
industry and experience. 

4. The cultivation of flax was transported 
from Eg^ypt to Gaul, and enriched the whole 
country, however it might impoverish the par- 
ticular lands on which it was sown. 

5. The use of artificial grasses became fami- 
liar to the farmers both of Italy and the provinces, 
particularly the lucerne, which derived its name 
and origin from Media. The assured supply of 
wholesome and plentiful food for the cattle during 
winter, multiplied the number of the flocks and 
herds, which, in their turn, contributed to the 
fertility of the soil. 

To all these improvements may be added an 
assiduous attention to mines and fisheries, which 
by employing a multitude of laborious hands, 
serves to increase the pleasures of the rich, and 
the subsistence of the poor. The elegant treatise 
of Columella describes the advanced state of the 
Spanish husbandry, under the reign of Tiberius ; 
and it may be observed, that those famines, which 
so frequently afflicted the infant republic, were 
seldom or never experienced by the extensive 
empire of Rome. The accidental scarcity, in 
any single province, was immediately relieved 
by the plenty of its more fortunate neighbours. 



ESCAPE OF THE EARL. OF NITHSDALE. 255 



ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE 

OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE, FROM THE 
TOWER, IN THE YEAR, 1716. 

iiORD Nithsdale was one of the Scottish 
noblemen who were concerned in the rebellion 
headed by the Earl of Mar, in the year 1715. 
Tlie House of Commons preferred articles of 
impeachment against him, and several others, 
who all, except the Earl of Wintoun, pleaded 
guilty, and on the 9th of February, 1716, 
received judgment of death. The countess of 
Nithsdale and lady Nairne threw themselves at 
the king's feet as he passed through the apart- 
ments of the palace, and implored his mercy in 
behalf of their husbands; but their tears and 
entreaties were of no avail. The 'countess 
finding that nothing would appease the king 
but the death of her husband and the other 
lords, planned the earl's escape from the tower in 
woman's apparel, which she safely effected. 
The letter, of which the following is a copy, 
written by herself and addressed to her sister 
lady Lucy Herbert, abbess of the Augustine 
nunnery at Bruges, giving an account of that 
transaction is still preserved in the family, and 
was in the possession of the late Marmaduke 
Constable Maxwell, Esq. of Everingham in 
Yorkshire. 



256 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE 

" Paiais Royal de Rome^ ISth Jpril^ 1718. 
** Dear Sister, 

" My Lord's escape is now such an old story, 
that I have almost forgotten it; but since you 
desire me to give you a circumstantial account 
of it, I will endeavour to recal it to my memory, 
and be as exact in the narration as I possibly can ; 
for I owe you too many obligations to refuse you 
any thing that lies in my power. 

" 1 think I owe myself the justice to set out 
with the motives which influenced me to under- 
take so hazardous an attempt, which I despaired 
of thoroughly accomplishing, foreseeing a thou- 
sand obstacles, which never could be surmounted 
but by the most particular interposition of 
Divine Providence. I confided in the Almighty 
God, and trusted that he would not abandon me, 
even when all human succours failed me. 

"I first came to London upon hearing that 
ray Lord was committed to the Tower, I was at 
the same time informed that he had expressed 
the greatest anxiety to see me, having, as he 
afterwards told me, nobody to console him till I 
arrived. I rode to Newcastle, and from thence 
took the stage to York. When I arrived there 
the snow was so deep that the stage could not 
set out for London. The season was so severe, 
and the roads so extremely bad, that the post 
itself was stopt ; however, I took horses, and rode 
to London through the snow, which was generally 



OF THE EARL, OF NITHSDALE. 257 

above the horse's girth, and arrived safe and 
sound without any accident. 

** On my arrival I went immediately to make 
what interest I could amongst those who were in 
place. No one gave me any hopes ; but all to 
the contrary, assured me, that although some of 
the prisoners were to be pardoned, yet my lord 
would certainly not be of the number. When 
I enquired into the reason of this distinction, I 
could obtain no other answer, than that they 
would not flatter me ; but I soon perceived the 
reasons which they declined alleging to me. 
A roman catholic, upon the frontiers of Scotland, 
who headed a very considerable party — a man 
whose family had always signalized itself by its 
loyalty to the royal house of Stuart, and who was 
the only support of the catholics against the in- 
veteracy of the Whisfs, who were very numerous in 
that part of Scotland, would become an agreeable 
sacrifice to the opposite party. They still retained 
a lively remembrance of his grandfather, who de- 
fended his own castle of Carlaverock to the very 
last extremity, and surrendered it up only by the 
express command of his royal master. Now 
having his grandson in their power, they were de- 
termined not to let him escape from their hands. 

** Upon this I formed the resolution to attempt 
his escape, but opened my intentions to nobody 
but my dear Evans. In order to concert mea- 
sures I strongly solicited to be permitted to sec 

1.1 



258 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE 

ttiy lord, which they refused to grant me, unless 
I would remain confined with him in the Tower. 
This I would not submit to, and alleged for 
excuse, that my health would not permit me to 
undergo the confinement. The real reason of 
my refusal was, not to put it out of my power to 
accomplish my design ; however, by bribing the 
guards, I often contrived to see my lord, till the 
day upon which the prisoners were condemned ; 
after that we were allowed for the last week to 
see and take our leave of them. 

" By the help of Evans, I had prepared every 
thing necessary to disguise my lord, but had the 
utmost difficulty to prevail upon him to make 
use of them ; however, I at length succeeded by 
the help of Almighty God. 

" On the 22d of February, which fell on a 
Thursday, our petition was to be presented to 
the House of Lords, the purport of which was 
to intreat the lords to intercede with his majesty 
to pardon the prisoners. We were, however, 
disappointed the day before the petition was to be 
presented ; for the Duke of St. Alban's, who had 
promised my Lady Derwentwater to present it, 
when it came to the point, failed in his word : 
however, as she was the only English countess 
concerned, it was incumbent upon her to have it 
presented. We had one day left before the 
execution, and the duke still promised to present 
the petition; but, for fear he should fail, I 



OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 2of> 

engaged the Duke of Montrose to secure its being 
done by the one or the other. I then went in 
company of most of the ladies of quality wha 
were then in town, to solicit the interest of the 
lords, as they were going to the house. They 
all behaved to me with great civility, but par- 
ticularly my Lord Pembroke, who, though he 
desired me not to speak to him, yet promised to 
employ his interest in our favour, and honourably 
kept his word; for he spoke in the house very 
strongly in our behalf. The subject of the debate 
was, whether the king had the power to pardon 
those who had been condemned by parliament ? 
And it was chiefly owing to Lord Pembroke's 
speech, that it passed in the affirmative : how- 
ever, one of the lords stood up and said, that 
the house would only intercede for those of the 
prisoners who should approve themselves worthy 
of their intercession, but not for all of them indis- 
criminately. This salvo quite blasted all my 
hopes ; for I was assured it aimed at the exclu- 
sion of those who should refuse to subscribe to 
the petition, which was a thing I knew my lord 
would never submit to ; nor, in fact, could I wish 
to preserve his life on such terms. 

** As the motion had passed generally, I thought 
I could draw some advantage in favour of my 
design. Accordingly, I immediately left the 
House of Lords, and hastened to the Tower, 
where, affecting an air of joy and satisfaction, I 
1. 1 2 



I 



260 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE 

told all the guards I passed by, that I came to 
bring- joyful tidings to the prisoners. I desired 
them to lay aside their fears, for the petition had 
passed the house in their favour. 1 then gave 
them some money to drink to the lords and his 
majesty, though it was but trifling ; for 1 thought 
that if I were too liberal on the occasion, they 
might suspect my designs, and that giving them 
something would gain their good humour and 
services for the next day, which was the eve of 
the execution. 

" The next morning I could not go to the 
Tower, having so many things in my hands to 
put in readiness ; but in the evening when all 
was ready, I sent for Mrs. Mills, with whom I 
lodged, and acquainted her with my design of 
attempting my lord's escape, as there was no 
prospect of his being pardoned ; and this was the 
last night before the execution. I told her that 
I had every thing in readiness, and I trusted that 
she would not refuse to accompany me, that my 
lord might pass for her. I pressed her to come 
immediately, as we had no time to lose. At the 
same time I sent for Mrs. Morgan, then usually- 
known by the name of Hilton, to whose acquaint- 
ance my dear Evans had introduced me, which 
I looked upon as a very singular happiness. I 
immediately communicated my resolution to her. 
She was of a very tall and slender make, so I 
begged her to put under her own riding-hood, one 



OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 261 

that I had prepared for Mrs. Mills, as she was to 
lend her's to my Lord, that in coming* out he 
might be taken for her. Mrs. Mills was then 
with child ; so that she was not only of the same 
height, but nearly of the same size as my lord. 
When they were in the coach, I never ceased 
talking", that they might have no leisure to reflect. 
Their surprise and astonishment, when I first 
opened my design to them, had made them con- 
sent, without ever thinkinig of the consequences. 
On our arrival at the Tower, the first I intro- 
duced was Mrs. Morgan; for I was only 
allowed to take in one at a time. She brought 
in the clothes that Were to serve Mrs. Mills, 
when she left her own behind her. When Mrs, 
Morgan had taken off what she had brought 
for my purpose, I conducted her back to the 
staircase ; and in going I begged her to send 
me in my maid to dress me ; that I was afraid 
of being too late to present my last petition that 
night, if she did not come immediately. I des= 
patched her safe, and went partly down stairs to 
meet Mrs. Mills, who had the precaution to hold 
her handkerchief to her face, as was very natural 
for a woman to do when she was going to bid 
her last farewell to a friend on the eve of his 
execution. 1 had indeed desired her to do it, 
that my lord might go out in the same manner. 
Her eyebrows were rather inclined to be sandy, 
and my lords were dark and very thick ; however. 



262 ACCOUNT Off THE ESCAPE 

I had prepared some paint of the colour of her's, 
to disguise his with. I also brought an artificial 
head-dress of the same coloured hair as her*s^ 
and I painted his face with white and his cheeks 
w^ith rouge, to hide his long beard, as he had 
not time to shave. All this provision I had be- 
fore left in the Tower. 

The poor guards, whom my slight liberality 
the day before had endeared to me, let me go 
quietly with my company, and were not so strictly 
on the watch as they usually had been ; and the 
more so, as they were persuaded, from what I 
had told them the day before, that the prisoners 
would obtain their pardon. I made Mrs. Mills 
take off her own hood, and put on that which I 
had brought for her -, I then took her by the hand 
and led her out of my lord's chamber ; and in 
passing through the next room, in which there 
were several people, with all the concern imagi- 
nable, 1 said, " Mj^ dear Mrs. Catherines, go ia 
all haste, and send me my waiting maid ; she 
certainly cannot reflect how late it is ; she forgets 
that 1 am to present a petition to-night, and if 
I let slip this opportunity I am undone, for to- 
morrow will be too late. Hasten her as much as 
possible, for I shall be on thorns till she comes.'* 
Every body in the room, who were chiefly 
tlie guards' wives and daughters, seemed to com- 
passionate me exceedingly, and the sentinel very 
officiously opened the door to me. When I had 



OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 263 

seen her out I returned back to my lord, and 
finished dressing him. I had taken care that 
Mrs. Mills did not go out crying as she came in, 
that my lord might the better pass for the lady 
who came in crying and afflicted, and the more 
so, because he had the same dress she wore. 
When I had almost finished dressing my lord in 
all my petticoats excepting one, 1 perceived 
that it was growing dark, and was afraid that 
the light of the candles might betray us, so I re- 
solved to set off j I went out leading him by the 
hand, and he held his handkerchief to his eyes; 
1 spoke to him in the most piteous and afflicted 
tone of voice, bewailing bitterly the negligence 
of Evans, who had ruined me by her delay. 
Then, said I, " My dear Mrs. Betty, for the 
love of God run quickly, and bring her with 
you; you know my lodging, and if ever you 
made despatch in your life, do it at present, I am 
almost distracted with this disappointment." 
The guards opened the doors, and I went down 
stairs with him, still conjuring him to make all 
possible despatch. As soon as he had cleared 
the door I made him walk before me, for fear 
the sentinel should take notice of his walk, but 
I still continued to press him to make all the des- 
patch he possibly could. At the bottom of the 
stairs I met my dear Evans, into whose hands I 
confided him. I had before engaged Mr. Mills 
to be in readiness, before the Tower, to conduct 



264 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE 

him to some place of safety, in case we sue- 
ceeded. He looked upon the affair so very im- 
probable to succeed, that his astonishment, when 
lie saw us, threw him into such consternation, 
that he was almost out of himself, which Evans 
perceiving-, with the greatest presence of mind, 
without telling him any thing, lest he should 
mistrust them, conducted him to some of her 
own friends, on whom she could rely, and so 
secured him, without which we should have been 
undone. When she had conducted him, and left 
him with them, she returned to find Mr. Mills^ 
who, by this time, had recovered himself from his 
astonishment. They went home together, and 
having found a place of security, they conducted 
him to it. 

In the mean while, as I had pretended to have 
sent the young lady on a message, I was obliged 
to return up stairs and go back to my lord's 
room, in the same feigned anxiety of being too 
late, so that every body seemed sincerely to 
sympathize with my distress. When I was in 
the room, I talked to him, as if he had been 
really present, and answered my own questions 
in my lord's voice, as nearly as I could imitate 
it. 1 walked up and down, as if we were con- 
versing together, till I thought they had time 
enough thoroughly to clear themselves of the 
guards. I then thought proper to make off also. 
I opened the door, and stood half in it, that those 



OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 266 

in the outward chamber might hear what I said, 
but held it so close, that they could not look in. 
I bid my lord a formal farewell, for that night, 
and added that something more than usual must 
have happened to make Evans negligent on this 
important occasion, who had always been so 
punctual in the smallest trifles ; that I saw no 
other remedy than to go in person ; that if the 
Tower were still open when I finished my busi- 
ness, I would return that night ; but that he 
might be assured I would be with him as early 
in the morning as I could gain admittance into 
the Tower, and I flattered myself 1 should bring 
favourable news. Then, before I shut the door, 
I pulled through the string of the latch, so that 
it could only be opened on the inside. I then 
shut it with some degree of force, that I might 
be sure of its being- w^ell shut. I said to the 
servant as I passed by, that he need not carry in 
candles to his master till my lord sent for him, 
as he desired to finish some prayers first. I went 
down stairs, and called a coach. As there were 
several on the stand, I drove home to my lodg- 
ings, where poor Mr. Mackenzie had been 
waiting to carry the petition, in case my attempt 
had failed. I told him there was no need of any 
petition, as my lord was safe out of the Tower, 
and out of the hands of his enemies, as I hoped ; 
but that 1 did not know where be was. 

I discharged the coach, and sent for a sedan 
M m 



266 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE 

chair, and went to the Duchess of Biiccleugh, 
who expected me about that time, as I had beg- 
ged of her to present the petition for me, having 
taken ray precautions against all events, and 
asked if she was at home; and they answered, 
that she expected me, and had another duchess 
with her. I refused to go up stairs, as she had 
company with her, and I was not in a condition 
to see any other company. I begged to be shewn 
into a chamber below stairs, and that they would 
have the goodness to send her grace's maid to 
me, having something to say to her. I had dis- 
charged the chair, lest I might be pursued and 
watched. When the maid came in, I desired 
her to present my most humble respects to her 
grace, who they told me had company with her, 
and to acquaint her that this was my only reason 
for not coming up stairs. I also charged her 
with my sincerest thanks for the kind offer to 
accompany me when I went to present my peti- 
tion, t added, that she might spare herself any 
further trouble, as it was now judged more 
advisable to present one general petition in the 
name of all; however, that I should never be 
unmindful of my particular obligations to her 
grace, which I would return very soon to acknow- 
ledge in person. 

I then desired one of the servants to call a chair, 
and I went to the duchess of Montrose, who had 
always borne a part in my distress. When I 



OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 267 

arrived, she left her company to deny herself, not 
being able to see me under the affliction which 
she judg-ed me to be in. By mistake I was, 
however admitted ; so there was no remedyo 
She came to me ; and as my heart was in extasy 
of joy, I expressed it in my countenance as she 
entered the room. I ran up to her in a transport 
of joy. She appeared to be extremely shocked 
and frightened ; and has since confessed to me 
that she apprehended my trouble had thrown me 
out of myself, till I communicated my happiness 
to her. She then advised me to retire to some 
place of security; for that the king was highly 
displeased, and even enraged at the petition that 
I had presented to him, and had complained of 
it severely. I sent for another chair, for I always 
discharged them immediately, lest I might be 
pursued. Her grace said she would go to court 
to see how the news of my lord*s escape was 
received. When the news was brought to the 
king he flew into an excess of passion, and said 
he was betrayed; for it could not have been 
done without some confederacy. He instantly 
despatched two persons to the Tower to see that 
the other prisoners were well secured, lest they 
should follow the example. Some threw the 
blame upon one, some upon another. The duch- 
ess was the only one at court who knew it. 

When I left the duchess I went to a house which 
Evans had found out for me, and where she pro- 
M m 2 



268 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE 

mised to acquaint me where my lord was ; she got 
thither some few minutes after me, and told me 
that when she had seen him secure, she went in 
search of Mr. Mills, who, by this time, had re- 
covered himself from his astonishment; that he had 
returned to her house, where she found him, and 
that he had removed my lord from the first place, 
where she had desired him to wait, to the house 
of a poor woman, directly opposite to the guard- 
house ; she had but one small room up one pair 
of stairs, and a very small bed in it. — We threw 
ourselves upon the bed, that we might not be 
heard walking up and down. She left us a 
bottle of wine and some bread ; and Mrs. Mills 
brought us some more in her pocket the next 
day. We subsisted on this provision from Thurs- 
day till Saturday night, when Mrs. Mills came 
and conducted my lord to the Venetian ambas- 
sador's. 

We did not communicate the affair to his 
excellency 3 but one of his servants concealed 
him in his own room till Wednesday, on which 
day the ambassador's coach and six was to go 
down to Dover to meet his brother. My lord 
put on a livery, and went down in the retinue, 
without the least suspicion, to Dover, where Mr. 
Mitchell (which was the name of the ambassador's 
servant) hired a small vessel, and immediately 
set sail for Calais. The passage was so remark- 
ably short, that the captain threw out this reflec- 



OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 269 

tion, that the wind could not have served better 
if his passeng-ers had been flying- for their lives, 
little thinking it to be really the case. Mr, 
Mitchell might have easily returned without being* 
suspected of being" concerned in my lord's escape; 
but my lord seemed inclined to have him continue 
with him, which he did, and has at present a good 
place under our young master. 

This is as exact and full an account of this 
affair, and of the persons concerned in it, as I 
could possibly give you, to the best of my memory, 
and you may rely on the truth of it. I am, with 
the strongest attachment, my dear sister, your's 
most affectionately, 

WINIFRED NITHSDALE. 



ACCOUNT OF THE 

FIRST RISE OF FAIRS IN ENGLAND, AND 
\ THE MANNER OF LIVING IN THE SIXTEENTH 
AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 

xSEFORE the necessaries or ornaments of life 
from the convenience of communication and the 
increase of provincial intercourse could be pro- 
cured in towns, through the medium of shops, 
goods and commodities of every kind were chiefly 
sold at fairs, to which, as to one universal mart, 



270 ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST RISE OF 

the people resorted periodically, and supplied 
most of their wants for the ensuing year. 

Fairs and markets were at first held near the 
castles of the great barons, and near the cathe- 
drals and principal churches in the cities and 
great towns, not only to prevent frauds in the 
king's duties or customs, but also as they were 
esteemed places where the laws of the land were 
observed, and as such had a very particular 
privilege. 

The display of merchandize and the conflux 
of customers at these principal and only emporia 
of domestic commerce were prodigious, and they 
were, therefore, often held on open and extensive 
plains. 

It appears from a curious record containing 
the establishment and expenses of the Earl of 
Northumberland in the year 1512, that the stores 
of his lordship's house at Wressle, for the whole 
year were laid in from fairs ; " He that stands 
charged with my lord's house for the whole year, 
if he may possible, shall be at all fairs, where 
the gross emptions (that is the principal articles) 
shall be bought for the house for the whole year, 
as wine, wax, beeves, muttons, wheat and malt." 

This quotation is a proof that fairs were at 
that time the principal marts for purchasing 
necessaries in large quantities, which now are 
supplied by trading towns, and the mention 
of buying beeves and muttons, (oxen and sheep) 



FAIRS IN ENGLAND, &C. 271 

shews that at so late a period they knew but little 
of breeding" cattle. 

The great increase of shops in the retail 
trade in all the towns and villages through the 
kingdom since the commencement of the eigh- 
teenth century, by means of which the inhabi- 
tants are supplied with every article necessary 
for subsistence as well as for luxury, has in a 
great measure rendered useless the purposes for 
which fairs were originally established. This 
change in the domestic trade of the country may 
be attributed partly to the facility of payment 
given by the notes of the bank of England and 
inland bills of exchange, and partly to the more 
speedy and certain intercourse which has been 
produced by the regularity of the post office. 
The latter may be looked upon as the cause and 
the former the effect of this chang-e whi<5h has 
so completely altered the state of fairs throughout 
the kino^dom. 

Connected with fairs as furnishing the neces- 
saries of life may be given an account of the 
living of the people in England in the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries. 

From the household book of the Earl of Nor- 
thumberland above-mentioned it appears, that 
his family, during winter, lived mostly on salted 
meat and salt fish, and on that account there was 
an order for providing 180 gallons of mustard. 
On flesh days through the year, breakfast for the 



272 ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST RISE OF 

earl and his lady was a loaf of bread, two man- 
chets, a quart of beer, a quart of wine, half a 
chine of mutton, or a chine of beef boiled. On 
meagre days, a loaf of bread, two manchets, a 
quart of beer, a quart of wine, a dish of butter, 
a piece of salt fish, or a dish of buttered eggs. 
During Lent, a loaf of bread, two manchets, a 
quart of beer, a quart of wine, two pieces of salt 
fish, six baconed herrings, or a dish of sprats. 
The other meals had as little variety, except on 
festival days. 

At that time capons, chickens, hens, pigeons, 
rabbits, plovers, woodcocks, quails, snipes, 
partridges, and pheasants, were accounted such 
delicacies as to be prohibited except at the earl's 
table. 

From the same book it appears that the earl 
had only two cooks for dressing victuals for 
his household which consisted of 229 persons. 

Hollinshed, who wrote about 1577, observes 
that white meats, i. e. milk, butter and cheese, 
formerly the chief food of the English people, 
were in his time degraded to be the food of the 
lowest sort, and that the wealthy fed upon flesh 
and fish. 

Feasts in those times were carried beyond all 
bounds of moderation. There is preserved an 
account of a feast given by Archbishop Nevill 
at his installation, 1466, in which are mentioned, 
among a great variety of others, the following 



FAIRS IN ENGLAND, &C. 273 

articles, viz. wheat 300 quarters, ale 300 tuns, 
80 oxen, 6 wild bulls, 1000 sheep, 300 calves, 
300 swine called porks, 2000 pigs, 200 kids, 
4000 rabbits, upwards of 400 harts, bucks and 
roes, 3000 geese, 2300 capons, 2000 chickens, 
4000 pigeons, 100 peacocks, 200 cranes, 4000 
mallards and teals, 500 partridges, 400 wood- 
cocks ; 1500 hot, and 4000 cold venison pasties, 
2000 hot custards, and 4000 cold ones. On the 
tables at this feast it is mentioned there were 
4 porpoises and 8 seals. 

There were 62 cooks and 515 servants to assist 
them, and not less than e3000 persons in all were at 
this feast. 

At the above period there was not discovered 
in society, any pleasure but that of crouding to- 
g-ether in hunting and feasting. The delicate 
pleasures of conversation, in communicating 
opinions, sentiments and desires, were wholly 
unknown. 

About the year 1512 the breakfast hour was 
eight, and at ten they sat down to dinner ; at 
three in the afternoon they had a drinking, and 
four was the hour for supper. The gates of the 
Earl of Northumberland's castles were shut at 
nine in the evening throughout the year, *• to the 
intent tliat no servant shall come in at the said 
gate, that ought to be within, who are out of 
the house at that hour.'* 

By a household establishment of Lord Fairfax's, 
N n 



274 ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST RISE OF 

about 1650, it aopenrs that eleven had then 
become the hour of dining', and towards the end 
of that century the hour was twelve, but from the 
beginning of the last century it has gradually 
grown later to the present times, when seven has 
become the fashionable hour in noblemen's houses. 

In the country, and in moderate families in 
the metropolis, one and two are the more gene- 
ral hours for dining. 

From the Percy household book it may be 
observed, that several dishes w^ere then in use 
which have been long banished from our tables; 
among these may be reckoned cranes, herons, 
sea-gulls, bitterns and kirlews, and at archbishop 
NevilFs feast, porpoises and seals were served up. 

After the accession of Henry the seventh to 
the throne, the nation began to rest from the 
scenes of war and blood which for several years 
had subsisted between the Houses of York and 
Lancaster, and in the next reign the people 
turned their attention more to trade and the arts 
of peace, so that we find the mode of living con- 
siderably changed, for luxury being ever the 
attendant of extended commerce, this brought us 
acquainted with the produce of foreign countries 
till then unknown in England. 

Previously to 1509 the principal vegetables 
used at the tables of the great were imported 
from the Netherlands, so that when Catherine^ 
queen of Henry the eighth wanted a sallad, she 
was obliged to despatch a messenger to Flanders. 



FAIRS IX ENGLAND, &C. 275 

Asparag-us and artichokes were introduced into 
England about 1578, and cauliflowers somev/hat 
later. Celery was not introduced into England 
till after 1709, when Marshal Tallard being" 
made prisoner at the battle of Malplaquet, and 
brought into England, first introduced this plant 
on the English tables. 

There is an article in the Percy household 
book which says, " That from henceforth there 
be no herbs bought, seeing that the cooks may 
have herbs enough in my lord's gardens." 

Since the introduction of tea into England at 
the close of the seventeenth century the living of 
all classes of the people has experienced a total 
change, but it was not till about 1740 that tea 
came to be generally used in the country, for 
previously to that time those who made use of it got 
it by stealth, each being afraid of being known to 
be in possession of what was then termed a great 
luxury. 

Waller has a poem addressed to the queers 
Maria d'Este, wife of James the second in 1G83, 
^* On Tea commended by her Majesty," whereby 
it seems it was even then a new thing, though 
Mr. Hanway in his Essay ou Tea says that Lord 
Arlington and Lord Ossory introduced it into 
England in 1666, and that it was then admired 
as a new thing. Their ladies introduced it 
among the women of quality, and its price was 
then £3 per pound, and continued the same till 
1707. In 1715 green tea began to be used, and 



276 FAIRS IN ENGLAND. 

the practice of drinking- tea descended to the 
middling classes of the people. 

In the Tatler (No. 86, Oct. 27, 1709) the author 
mentions inviting his friends, seemingly as though 
tea was common, to drink a dish of tea, which 
they refused, saying they never drank tea in the 
morning. 

The same author observes, that dinner had in 
his memory, crept by degrees from twelve o'clock 
to three, and in the Spectator it is said that 
coffee houses were frequented by shopkeepers 
from six in the morning, and that the students at 
law made their appearance in them in their night 
gowns about eight. A lady who sends her jour- 
nal to the Spectator represents herself as taking 
chocolate in bed, and sleeping after it till ten, 
and drinking her Bohea from that hour till eleven. 
Her dinner hour was from three to four, and she 
did not sit up later at a card party than twelve. 
A citizen out of trade, in the same work, describes 
himself as rising at eight, dining at two, and 
going to bed at ten if not kept up at the club he 
frequented. 

The history of Taverns in this country may 
be traced back to the time of king Henry the 
fourth, for so ancient is that of the Boar's Head 
in East Cheap, London, the rendezvous of prince 
Henry and his riotous companions. Of little less 
antiquity is the White Hart without Bishopsgate, 
which now bears in the front of it, the date of 
its erection, 1480. 



SIR mCHARD CLOUGH. 277 



SIR RICHARD CLOUGH. 

JSiR Richard Clough was a man of distinguished 
character, who raised himself by his merit, from 
a poor boy at Denbigh to be one of the greatest 
merchants of his time. He was first a chorister 
at Chester, than had the good fortune to become 
apprentice to the famous Sir Thomas Gresham, 
and afterwards his partner, with whom he may 
be considered as joint founder of the Royal 
Exchange, having contributed several thousand 
pounds towards that noble design. His residence 
was chiefly at Antwerp, where after his death 
his body was interred ; his heart at Whitchurch, 
in the vicinity of Denbigh. He is said to have 
made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and to have 
been a knight of the holy sepulchre ; and he 
accordingly assumed the five crosses, the badge 
of that order, for his arms. His wealth was so 
great, that his name became proverbial, and the 
Welsh have a saying, on any person's attaining 
great riches, that he is become a do ugh. Sir 
Richard left two daughters, but it is probable 
that they enjoyed but an inconsiderable part of 
his wealth, which is said to have gone to Sir 
Thomas Gresham, according to an agreement 
in case of survivorship. Sir Richard died first, 
but the time is unknown. Sir Thomas survived 
till the year 1579. 



278 SIR RICHARD CLOUGH. 

The original hint of the Royal Exchange was 
given to Sir Thomas Gresham by Sir Richard 
Clough, who in the year 1561, had been advanced 
by the former, to be his correspondent and agent 
in the then emporium of the world, Antwerp. 
Clough wrote to his master, to blame the 
citizens of London for neglecting so necessary a 
thing ; bluntly saying that " they studied nothing 
else but their own private profit ; that they were 
content to walk about in the rain, more like ped- 
lars than merchants, and that there was no kind of 
people but had their place to transact business in, 
in other countries." Thus stimulated, Sir Thomas, 
in 156(5, laid the foundation, and the next year 
completed what was then called the Bourse, which 
three years after on being visited by queen Eliza- 
beth, was dignified by her with the title of Royal 
Exchange, 

An original picture of Sir Richard Clough 
is preserved at Llany wern, the seat of Sir Thomas 
Salusbury, Bart. It is a half length extremely 
well painted on board, his hair is very short, and 
of a dark brown. He is dressed in a short close 
jacket, black, striped with white, and great white 
breeches. In his right hand a glove ; his left 
on his sword ; on liis right side is a dagger. 
The arms of the holy sepulchre, which he had 
assumed, are on one side of the picture. It was 
probably painted at Antwerp, which at this period 
abounded with artists of the first merit. 



KOYAL CLEMENCY. 279 



KOYAL CLEMENCY. 

JLEWIS the thirteenth of France being desir- 
ous to sit as judg'e at the trial of the Duke de la 
Vallette, assembled, in his cabinet, some mem- 
bers of the Parliament, together with some 
counsellors of state, to consult on the propriety 
of such a step. Upon their being- compelled by 
the king" to give their opinions concerning the 
decree for his arrest, the president, De Believre, 
said, ^' That he found it very strange that a prince 
should pass sentence upon one of his subjects; 
that kings had reserved to themselves the power 
of pardoning, and left that of condemning to 
their officers; that his majesty wanted to see 
before him at the bar, a person, who by his 
decision was to be hurried away in an hour's 
time into another world. That this is what a 
prince's countenance, from whence favours flow, 
should never bear; that his presence alone re- 
moved ecclesiastical censu.'es ; and that subjects 
ocight not to go away dissatisfied from their 
prince.'' . When sentence was passed, the same 
president said, ** This is an unprecedented judg- 
ment, and contrary to the example of past ages, 
to see a king of France, in the quality of a judge, 
condemning a gentleman to death." — It may be 
proper to add, that the sentence was afterwards 
revoked. 



280 LOTTERIES. 

It has always been urged against king James 
the second, as a proof of the inveterate cruelty 
of his disposition, that he should have ordered 
the Duke of Monmouth into his presence, and 
not pardoned him. Wehvood, in his Memoirs, 
says, that James, in this instance, made an excep- 
tion to a general rule observed inviolably by 
kings, " never to allov^^ a criminal, under sen- 
tence of death, the sight of his prince's face, 
without a design to pardon him." 

The custom of pardoning criminals, by admit- 
ting them into the presence of the sovereign, is of 
very ancient date. When Agag, king of the 
Amalekites, had been taken prisoner by Saul 
(1 Sam, XV. 20 — 33) and his life spared by that 
monarch, contrary to the divine command, and 
was afterwards brought into the presence of 
Samuel, he exclaimed " Surely the bitterness of 
death is past," evidently in allusion to this custom. 
But Samuel executed the command of God, by 
putting Agag to death, which ought to have 
been done by Saul, on taking him prisoner. 



LOTTERIES. 

iVS a source of revenue, this is only a modern 
invention ; and it is evident, were it not for the 
monopoly of this species of gambling, which the 
government insists on enjoying, that it could not 



LOTTERIES. 281 

possibly prove of any material advantage ; for 
individuals would soon set up private lotteries, 
could afford to carry them on with less profit, 
and would soon draw all the benefit of such 
speculations to themselves. 

The Romans had lotteries, particularly whilst 
they were under the government of the emperors. 
The tickets were distributed gratis among those 
guests who attended their entertainments, and 
all of them gained some prize. Heliogabalus 
took pleasure in making the prizes of very dis- 
proportionate value. Some of the prizes w^ere 
ten camels, others ten flies, some ten pounds of 
gold, ten eggs, and the like. The plays which 
Nero gave, were concluded by lotteries, consist- 
ing of prizes of wheat, wine, stuffs, gold, silver, 
slaves, ships, houses, and lands. 

In England, lotteries certainly took place in 
the reign of queen Elizabeth. According to 
Raynal, the two American companies in her 
reign, were favoured with the first lottery that 
ever was drawn in her dominions. The first 
however, of which we have any regular account 
was drawn in the year 1569. It consisted of 
400,000 lots, at ten shillings each ; the prizes 
were plate, and the profits were to go towards 
repairing the havens of this kingdom. It was 
drawn at the west door of St. Paul's Cathedral. 
The drawing began on the 11th of January, 
1509, and continued incessantly, day and night, 

o 



282 LOTTERIES. 

until the sixth of May, following*. There were 
then only three lottery offices in London. It 
was at first intended to have been drawn at the 
house of Mr. Derricke, the queen's jeweller, 
but was afterwards drawn as above mentioned. 

The proposals for this lottery were published 
in the years 1567 and 1568. Dr. Rawlinson 
shewed the Society of Antiquaries in 1748, " A 
proposal for a very rich lottery, general, without 
any blanks, containing" a great number of good 
prizes, as well of ready money as of plate and 
certain sorts of merchandizes, having been valued 
and prized by the commandment of the queen's 
most excellent majesty's order, to the intent that 
such commodities as may chance to arise thereof, 
after the charges borne, may be converted 
towards the reparations of the havens, and 
strength of the realm, and towards such other 
public good works. The number of lots shall 
be 400,000 and no more, and every lot shall be 
the sum of ten shillings sterling and no more. 
To be filled by the feast of St. Bartholomew. 
The shew of prizes are to be seen in Cheapside, 
at the sign of the Queen's Arms, the house 
of Mr. Derricke, goldsmith, servant to the 
queen." 

In the year 1612, king James in special favour 
for the plantation of English colonies in Virginia, 
granted a lottery to be held at the west end of 
St. Paul's, whereof one Thomas Sharplys, a 



HERCULANEUM MANUSCRIPTS. 28^ 

tailor of London, had the chief prize, which 
was 4000 crowns in plate. 

Lotteries were revived in the reign of William 
the third, and as all our evils were then attributed 
to Dutch counsels, the blame of lotteries, those 
banes of industry, frugality, and virtue, was as- 
cribed to an imitation of the example of Holland, 
and a wish in the natives of that country to ruin 
our morals, as well as to cramp our trade. 

In the reig-n of queen Anne it was thoug-ht 
necessary to suppress lotteries as nuisances to 
the public. They have, however, been revived 
of late years, and are now carried forward in a 
more extensive manner than at any former period. 



HERCULANEUM MANUSCRIPTS. 

i HE following account of the ancient rolls of 
Papyrus, discovered at Herculaneum, and the 
method employed to unrol them, is extracted 
from a letter written in 1802, by the Hon. Henry 
Grey Bennett, addressed to the late Rev. Samuel 
Henley, D. D. 

" The papyrus of the Greeks and Romans was 

the inside coating of a plant of the same name ; 

which was formerly common in various parts of 

Sicily ; a small river now choaked up near 

o o 2 



284 HERCULANEUM MANUSCRIPTS. 

Palermo was called the Papyrus, probably from 
the number of that species of plant which grew 
in its bed ; the same name was also given to 
various rivulets in the island. It is however 
most common in the neighbourhood of Syracuse, 
where a Sicilian a few years ago established a 
manufactory of that article, more indeed to 
gratify the wishes of the curious, than to reap 
any immediate profit. The texture is not so 
line as in the Egyptian or eastern manuscripts, 
w hich exist in the libraries of Paris. This may 
be owing probably to the method of preparation, 
and not to any difference in the plant. 

" The papyri are joined together, and form 
one roll, on each sheet of which, the characters 
are painted, standing out in a species of has 
relief, and singly to be read with the greatest 
ease. As there are no stops, a difficulty is found 
in joining the letters, in making out the words, 
and in discovering the sense of the phrase. The 
manuscripts were found in a chamber of an ex- 
cavated house, in the ancient Herculaneum, to 
the number of about 1800, a considerable part of 
which were in a state to be unrolled. That city 
was buried for the most part under a shower of 
hot ashes, and the manuscripts were reduced by 
the heat to a state of tinder, or to speak more 
properly, resembled paper which has been burnt. 
Where the baking has not been complete, and 
where any part of the vegetable juice has 



HERCULANEUM MANUSCRIPTS. 285 

remained it is almost impossible to unroll them, 
the sheets towards the centre, being" so closely 
united. In the others as you approach to the 
centre, or conclusion, the manuscripts become 
smoother, and the work proceeds with greater 
rapidity. A manuscript, by Epicurus, was un- 
rolled in March, 1802, twenty seven sheets of 
which were taken off, not indeed so well as 
could have been hoped, but a great part suffi- 
ciently intelligible, to judge of the style of the 
author, and the nature of its contents. It unfor- 
tunately fell to the lot of a young beginner, who 
in his hurry to conclude, spoiled much more 
than he saved. 

" The papi/ri are very rough on the outside, and 
in some there are great holes. All the inequali- 
ties are made smooth, previous to unrolling them, 
with facility ; in consequence much must inevi- 
tably be lost. Great care, however, is taken to 
preserve all the pieces, and when broken off, 
they are placed in the same sheet, preserving 
their original position. 

" When first Mr. Hayter began this process, 
there was one man tolerably expert, and three 
only who had ever seen the manner of it ; con- 
sequently, all were to be taught. This may 
serve as a reason why, as yet, so little has been 
done. One Latin manuscript was found, but it 
was in too bad a state to promise any chance of 



286 WOLVES IN ENGLAND. 

success. They are of different sizes, some con- 
taining- only a few sheets, as a single play, others 
some hniidreds, and a few, perhaps, two thousand. 
We may hope from the first, Menander, and 
from the others, the histories of Livy and Dio- 
dorus Siciilus, perhaps the Doric poetry of the 
Sicilian muse, or the philosophy of the schools 
of A^rigentum and of Syracuse. We are led 
from the nature of the manuscripts to trust, that 
the indefatigable labours, the attention, and in- 
dustry of Mr. Hayter will not be thrown away, 
and that the assistance to be derived from the 
English minister, Mr. Drummond, as well on 
account of his classical knowledge, and his love 
of literature, as the advantages arising from his 
situation, may command ultimate success, and 
secure to those who are engaged in this business, 
the protection of the Neapolitan government, and 
the thanks of the literary world." 



WOLVES IN ENGLAND. 

J^ING Edward the first commissioned Peter 
Corbet to destroy the wolves in the counties of 
Gloucester, Worcester, Hereford, Salop, and 
Stafford, and ordered John Gifford to hunt them 
in all the forests of England. 



WOLVES IN ENGLAND. 287 

The forest of Chiltern was infested by wolves 
and wild bulls in the time of Edward the Con- 
fessor. William the Conqueror granted the 
lordship of Riddesdale, in Northumberland, to 
Robert de Umfraville, on condition of defending* 
that part of the country ag-ainst enemies and 
wolves. King' John gave a premium of ten 
shillings for catching two wolves. 

In the reign of king Henry the third Vitalis 
de Engaine held the manors of Laxton and Pitch- 
ley, in the county of Northampton, by the service 
of hunting the wolf, whenever the king should 
command him. In the reign of Edward the 
first, it was found by inquisition that John de 
Engaine, held the manor of Great Giddingin the 
county of Huntingdon by the service of hunting 
the hare, fox, wild cat, and wolf, within the 
counties of Huntingdon, Northampton, Buck- 
ingham, Oxford, and Rutland. In the reign of 
Edward the third, Thomas de Engaine, held 
certain manors by the service of finding at his 
own proper cost, certain dogs for the destruction 
of wolves, foxes, martins, and wild cats, in the 
counties of Northampton, Rutland, Oxford, 
Essex, and Buckingham. 



^88 PROFESSOR PORSON 



PROFESSOR PORSON. 

JL HIS eminent scholar and acute critic was 
born at East Ruston, in the county of Norfolk, 
on the 25th of December, 1759. At a very 
early period he displayed talents which gave 
promise of future excellence, and some gentlemen 
who admired his acquirements in learning, sent 
him to Eton, from whence he was afterwards 
entered of Trinity College, Cambridge. The 
following account of Mr. Porson, when an Eton 
boy, is extracted from the evidence of Dr. 
Goodall, the present Provost of Eton, given 
before the Education Committee of the House 
of Commons. 

Dr. Goodall being asked if he was acquainted 
with what happened to the late Professor Porson 
to prevent his election to King's College, replied 
as follows : — 

" Every account that I have read about him, 
in relation to that circumstance is incorrect. 
When he came to the school he was placed 
rather higher by the reputation of his abilities, 
than perhaps he ought to have been, in conse^ 
quence of his actual attainments ; and I can only 
say that many of the statements in the life of 
Porson are not founded in truth. With respect 
to prosody, he knew but little, and as to Greek 
he had made comparatively but little progress 
when he came to Eton. The very ingenious 



PROFESSOR PORSON. 289 

and learned editor of one account of him, has 
been misinformed in most particulars ; and 
many of tlie incidents which he relates, I can 
venture from my own knowledge to assert, are 
distorted or e aggerated. Even Porson's com- 
positions, at an early period, though eminently 
correct, fell far short of excellence ; still we all 
looked up to him in consequence of his great 
abilities and variety of information, though much 
of that information was confined to the know- 
ledge of his schoolfellows, and could not easily 
fall under the notice of his instructors. He 
always undervalued school exercises, and gene- 
rally wrote his exercises fair at once, without 
study. I should be sorry to detract from the 
merit of an individual whom I loved, esteemed, 
and admired ; but I speak of him when he had 
only given the promise of his future excellence ; 
and in point of school exercises, I think he was 
very inferior to more than one of his contempo- 
raries ; I would name the present Marquis 
Wellesley as infinitely superior to him in com- 
position. 

" On being asked whether he wrote the same 
beautiful hand as he did afterwards. Dr. Good- 
all replied he did, nor was there any doubt of his 
general scholarship. 

<* To a question whether he made great progress 
during the time he was at Eton, or after he left ? 
Dr. Goodall said he was advanced as far as he 
could be with propriety, but there were certainly 

pp 



290 PROFESSOR PORSON. 

some there who would not have been afraid to 
challeno'e Porson as a school-bov, thouirh thev 
would have shunned all idea of competition with 
him at Cambrido^e. The first book that Porsou 
ever studied, as he often told me, was Cham- 
bers*s Cyclopaedia ; he read the whole of that 
dictionary through, and in a great degree made 
himself master of the algebraic part of that work 
entirely by the force of his understanding. 

** Dr. Goodall was then asked if he considered 
there was any ground for complaint on the part 
of Porson, in not having been sent to Cambridge, 
to which he answered no ; he was placed as 
high in the school as he well could be ; as a 
proof however of his merits, when he left Eton, 
contributions were readily supplied by Etonians 
in aid of Sir George Baker's proposal, to secure 
the funds for his maintenance at the university." 



In the year 1793, Mr. Porson was elected 
professor of Greek in the University of Cam- 
bridge, that office being then vacant by the death 
of professor Cooke. The following letter relat- 
ing to this election from Mr. Porson to the Rev. 
Dr. Postlethwayte, master of Trinity College, is 
now first printed : — 

" Essex Court, Temple, 6th October, 1792. 

" Sir, — When I first received the favour of 
your letter I must own that I felt rather vexation 
and chagrin than hope and satisfaction. I had 
looked uj)ou myself so completely in the light 



PROFESSOR PORSON. 291 

of an outcast from Almna Mater, that I had made 
lip my mitid to have no farther connection with 
the place. The prospect you held out to me 
gave me more uneasiness than pleasure. When 
I was younger than I now am, and my disposition 
more sanguine than it is at present, I was in daily 
expectation of Mr. Cooke's resignation, and I 
flattered myself with the hope of succeeding to 
the honour he was going to quit. As hope and 
ambition are great castle-builders, I had laid a 
scheme, partly as I was willing to think, for the 
joint credit, partly for the mutual advantage, of 
myself and the university. I had projected a 
plan of reading lectures, and I persuaded myself 
that I should easily obtain a grace, permitting- 
me to exact a certain sum from every person 
who attended. But seven years' waiting will tire 
out the most patient temper, and all my ambition 
of this sort was long ago laid asleep. The sud- 
den news of the vacant professorship put me in 
mind of poor Jacob, who having served seven 
years in hopes of being rewarded with Rachel, 
awoke, and behold it was Leah. 

" Such, sir, I confess were the first ideas that 
took possession of my mind. But after a little 
reflection, I resolved to refer a matter of this 
importance to my friends. This circumstance 
has caused the delay, for which 1 ought before 
now to have apologized. JMy friends unanimously 
exhorted me to embrace the good fortune which 
they conceived to be within my grasp. Their 



292 PROFESSOR PORSON. 

advice, therefore, joined to the expectation I had 
entertained of doing some small good by my 
exertions in the employment, together with the 
pardonable vanity which the honour annexed to 
the office inspired, determined me; and I was on 
the point of troubling you, sir, and the other 
electors with notice of my intentions to profess 
myself a candidate, when an objection which 
had escaped me in the hurry of my thoughts, 
now occurred to my recollection. 

'' The same reason which hindered me from 
keeping my fellowship by the method you 
obligingly pointed out to me, would, I am greatly 
afraid, prevent me from being Greek professor. 
Whatever concern this may give me for myself, 
it gives me none for the public. I trust there 
are at least twenty or thirty in the university, 
equally able and willing to undertake the office ; 
possessed, many of talents superior to mine, and 
all of a more complying conscience. This I 
speak upon the supposition that the next Greek 
professor will be compelled to read lectures ; but 
if the place remains a sinecure, the number of 
qualified persons will be greatly increased. And 
though it was even granted that my industry 
and attention might possibly produce some bene- 
fit to the interests of learning and the credit of 
the university, that trifling gain would be as 
much exceeded by keeping the professorship a 
sinecure, and bestowing it on a sound believer, 
as temporal considerations arc outweighed by 



PROFESSOR PORSON. 290 

spiritual. Having only a strong* persuasion, not 
an absolute certaint}^ that such a subscription is 
required of the professor elect ; if I am mistaken, 
I hereby offer myself as a candidate, but if I am 
right in my opinion, I shall beg* of you to order 
my name to be erased from the boards, and I shall 
esteem it a favour conferred on. Sir, 

Your oblig-ed humble servant, 

R. PORSON." 



Letter from the Rev, Joseph Goodall, D. D, 
Upper Master (now Provost) of Eton College, 

to Mr. Porson. 

''Eton, Nov. 16M, 1806. 

*' Dear Porson, — The bishop of Rochester 
[Dr. Dampier] has wi'itten to me requesting my 
assistance on the following subject. " On sum- 
*' ming' up matters the Oxford people find no 
** account of the Eton MS of Strabo, of which 
** use has been made, and want one for their 
** preface." Now the said bishop, urged by his 
brother of Oxford [Dr. Randolph] at the same 
time he hints that you have examined the MS in 
question, and advises me to enter upon the 
subject with you, which 1 most gladly do, pray- 
ing for such information as you may be disposed 
to give me, being fully persuaded that you are 
not likely to forget what you have once seen. 

" 1 write to the bishop by this post to acknow- 
ledge my incompetence. How glad should 
Mrs. Goodall and myself be, if you would take 



204 PROFESSOR PORSON. 

the trouble of once more inspecting' the MS and 
dating" your kind communication from the Eton 

library. Should you be a prisoner in street 

will you sufter me to bring- the MS to town 
about the middle of December, and then give me 
your opinion of its value, age, &c. The master 
of the Charter-House, [Dr. Kaine] whom I 
hope soon to greet by some other title, will I am 
sure, have the goodness to forward this petition 
to you. 

" Charles Hayes, who, with his wife is now on a 
visit to us, desires his kindest remembrance. 
Mrs. Goodall is fatigued to death with nursing a 
sick nephew and niece, and I am sorry to add 
that I am on the invalid list myself, but we hope 
to be all well in the course of a few days. She 
unites in every good wish with 

Dear Porson, 
Yours most faithfully, 

J. GOODALL." 



From Mr, William Laing of JEdinhurgh to 
3Ir, Porson. 

" Edinburgh, 3d of Jan. 1807. 
<* Sir, — The edition of Herodotus being now 
compleated after the plan you proceeded on, I 
have taken the liberty of dedicating to you, 
which I hope will meet your approbation. Mr. 
Dunbar who has succeeded poor Mr. Dalzel has 
paid the utmost attention to it. I shall order 
Cuthell to forward a copy for your use. A 



PROFESSOR PORSON. 295 

selection has been made of the best notes from 
Wesselinof; which with his Index Reriim, will 
make it very compleat. I return you my best thanks 
for the trouble you voluntarily undertook in pro- 
motin;^- this speculation. 1 hope soon to see you 
in town, and shall personally repeat my obliga- 
tions- 

" I am about to print a new and eleg-ant edition 
of Pindar in two volumes from Heyne's — You see 
there is still some spirit for enterprize existing 
here. 

" I hope all my little editions will possess 
beauty and correctness. I believe you have still 
a volume of Herodotus which belongs to a person 
here who vi^ants it. Please deliver it to my son 
who will call for it. 

I remain with the highest respect, 

Sir, your very obedient servant, 

WILLIAM LAING. " 



From Dr, Charles Burney to Mr, PorsQu. 

'^ Greenmch^ June 20th, 1808. 
'* My dear Porson, — My friends at Cambridge 
idirect me to request you will go down as spee- 
dily as may be, to vote, and collect votes, for 
a degree of M. A. to be conferred on me. Now 
though I know your objections to expeditions of 
such a nature, yet I cannot help intreating you, 
if you have not sound reasons against it to go 
ilown and aid my cause. 



296 PROFESSOR PORSON. 

" Kaye tells me that no time is to be lost. So 
if you can, pack up a small portion of wardrobe 
and visit alma mater, so will you greatly oblige 
and favor 

Your's affectionately, 

C. BURNEY/' 



From Dr. Davy, blaster of Gonville and Caius 
College, Cambridge, to Mr. Porson, 

" Caius Coll. Tuesday ^\st June^ 1808. 
** My dear Porson — I take the liberty of telling 
vou, in case it should affect any of your move- 
ments, that Dr. Burney's mandamus will be 
voted for on Friday next, at 2 o'clock precisely. 
Every thing seems in his favour. 

Your's most truly, 

M. DAVY." 



From. Thomas Tyrrvhilt, Esq. to Mr. James Perry, 
3Iorning Chronicle office, Strand. 

" Carlton House, Feb. 12M, 1805. 

'« Dear Sir, — Do pray at your convenience in- 
form me of the address of Mr. Porson, as some 
papers have been found in the collection of the 
late Sir William Hamilton respecting the Papiri, 
which are very interesting ; and several MSS so 
t iearly written out, as to be ready for the opinion 
of Mr. Porson, the only person in my opinion fit 
to inspect them in the whole kingdom. 

Your very faithful and obedient servant, 
THOMAS TYRWHITT." 



HISTORY OF SEPULCHRAL MONU3IENTS. 297 



HISTORY OP 

SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 

JIN the early ages of Christianity the honour of 
being deposited within the walls of the church 
was reserved to martyrs ; and it was the request 
of the emperor Constantino in imitation of this 
holy mode of interment, that after his death, his 
remains might be allowed to lie in the porch of the 
basilica of the Apostles, which he himself had 
erected in Constantinople. Hence the eloquent 
Chrysostom, when speaking of the triumphs of 
Christianity, exultingly observes, in allusion to this 
circumstance, that the Caesars, subdued by the 
humble fishermen whom they had persecuted, now 
appeared as suppliants before them, and gloried 
in occupying the place of porters at the doors of 
(heir sepulchres. Bishops and priests distin- 
guished by their learning, zeal, and sanctity, 
were gradually permitted to share the honours 
of the martyrs, and to repose with them within 
the sanctuary itself. A pious wish in some to be 
deposited in the neighbourhood of such holy 
persons, and to rest under the shadow of the 
altars ; in others an absurd love of distinction 
even beyond the grave ; to which may be added, 
that the clergy, by making such a distinction 
expensive, rendered it enviable; so that by 

aq 



298 HISTORY OF 

degrees, all the wholesome restrictions of antiquity 
were broken through, and at length the noblest 
public edifices, the temples of the Eternal, the 
seats of holiness and purity, were converted into 
so many dormitories of the dead. 

Our present business is to investigate the 
antiquity and variety of sepulchral monuments, 
which have been erected as memorials of the 
illustrious dead, in the cathedral, conventual, 
and parish churches of this island. During the 
time of our Saxon ancestors, it is probable, that 
few or no monuments of this kind were erected ; 
at least, being usually placed in the churches 
belonging to the greater abbeys, they felt the 
.stroke of the oeneral dissolution, and it is believed 
there are now scarcely any extant. Those we 
meet with for the kings of that race, such as Ina 
at Wells ;* Osric, at Gloucester ; Sebba and 
Ethelbert, which were in Old St. Paul's, or 
w here-ever else they may occur, are undoubtedly 
cenotaphs, erected in later ages by the several 
abbeys and convents of which these royal person- 
ages were the founders, in gratitude to such 
generous benefactors. 

The period immediately after the conquest 
was not a time for people to think of such 
memorials for themselves, or friends. Few could 

*■ In the centre of the nave of Wells Cathedral there is a 
large stone that had formerly upon it an effigy in brass, 
which was generally ascribed to king Ina, the founder of 
that church. 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 29f) 

then tell how long the lands they enjoyed would 
remain their own; and most indeed were put 
into the hands of new possessors, who, frequently, 
as we find in Domesday Book, held thirty or 
forty manors, or more, at a time. All then above 
the degree of servants, were soldiers, the sword 
alone made the gentleman, and accordingly on a 
strict inquiry, we shall meet with few or no 
monuments of that age, except for the kings, 
royal family, or some few of the chief nobility 
and leaders, among which, those for the Veres, 
Earls of Oxford, at Earl's Colne, in Essex, are 
some of the most ancient. It is probable that 
this state of things, so far as regards sepulchral 
monuments, continued through the troublesome 
reign of Stephen, and during the confusion which 
prevailed while the barons' wars subsisted, and 
until the ninth year of king Henry the third, 1224. 

In that year Magna Charta being confirmed, 
and every man's security better established, 
property became more dispersed, manors were 
in more divided hands, and the lords of them 
began to settle on their possessions in the country. 
In that age many parish churches were built, and 
it is not improbable that the care of a resting- 
place for their bodies, and monuments to preserve 
their memories, became more general and diffused. 

In country parish churches, the ancient monu- 
ments are usually found either in the chancel, or 
in small chapels, or side ailes, which have been 
built by the lords of manors, and patrons of 



300 HISTOKY OF 

the churches, (which for the most part went 
together,) and being designed for burying places 
for their families, were frequently endowed with 
chantries, in which priests officiated, and offered 
up prayers for the souls of their founder and his 
progenitors. 

The tracing out, therefore, of such founders, 
will frequently help us to the knowledge of an 
ancient tomb which is found placed near the 
altar of such chantries. If there are more than 
one, they are, probably, for succeeding lords, 
and where there have been found ancient monu- 
ments in the church, also, besides what are in 
such chapels or ailes, they may be supposed to 
have been erected in memory of lords, prior to 
the foundation of the buildings, 

CROSS-I.EGGED MONUMENTS. 

The first species of monument, of which I pro- 
pose to give the history, is that denominated 
crosS'leggedy from its having the recumbent effigy 
of the deceased upon it, represented in armour, 
with the legs crossed. During the Norman pe- 
riod of our history, the holy war, and vows of 
pilgrimage to Palestine, were esteemed highly 
meritorious. The religious order of laymen, the 
knights templars, were received, cherished, and 
enriched throughout Europe, and the individuals 
of that community, after death, being usually 
buried cross-legged, in token of the banner under 
which they fought, and completely armed in 
regard to their being soldiers, this sort of mouu- 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 301 

ment ^rew much in fashion, and though all the 
effigies with which we meet in that shape are 
commonly called knights templars, yet it is cer- 
tain that many of them do not represent persons 
of that order ; and Mr. LethieuUier says (Ar- 
ch(Bolo£fia, vol, 2. p. 292) that he had rarely found 
any of these monuments which he could with 
certainty say had been erected to the memory of 
persons who had belonged to that community. 
The order of knights templars had its rise but 
in the year 1118, and in 1134, we find Robert 
duke of Normandy, son of William the conque- 
ror, represented in this manner on his tomb in 
Gloucester cathedral.* — Henry Lacy, Earl of 

* This is one of the earliest specimens we have of the 
cross-legged monument. It is made of Irish oak, as well the 
table part, as the ei^gy* On the pannels are the arms of 
several of the worthies, and at the foot the arms of France and 
England, quarterly, which shews these escutcheons to have 
been painted since the reign of king Henry the fourth. This 
monument stood entire until the parliamentary army, during 
the Cromwell usurpation, having garrisoned the city of 
Gloucester against the king, the soldiers tore it to pieces, 
which being about to be burned, were bought of them by 
Sir Humphrey Tracy, of Stanway, and privately laid up 
until the Restoration, when the pieces were put together, 
repaired, and ornamented, and again placed in their former 
situation by Sir Humphrey, who also added a wire screen for 
their future preservation. There is an engraving of this 
monument in Sandford's Genealogical History, page 16, 
which Rudder, (//w^ory o/ G'/tfMcc^/er, p. 126.) calls a noble 
representation of it. 



302 HISTORY OF 

Lincoln, was represented thus on his fine fomb, 
which was in St. Paul's cathedral, before the fire 
of London. And in the Temple church there 
still remain the cross-legged effigies of William 
Marshall, Earl of Pembroke, who died in 1219 ; 
William his son, who died in 1231 ; and Gilbert, 
another son, who died in 1241 ; none of whom 
it is believed were of the order of Templars. 
If these monuments were designed to denote 
at least, that the persons, to whose memory they 
were erected, had been in the Holy Land, yet 

Gibbon has left us the following account of this prince, 
(Rom, Hist. vol. 11. p. 32) — " Robert, Duke of Normandy, 
one of the chiefs of the first crusade, on his father's death 
was deprived of the kingdom of England, by his own indo- 
lence and the activity of his brother Rufus. The worth of 
Robert was degraded by an excessive levity and easiness of 
temper ; his cheerfulness seduced him to the indulgence of 
pleasure, his profuse liberality impoverished the prince and 
people; his indiscriminate clemency multiplied the number 
of offenders ; and the amiable qualities of a private man, 
became the essential defects of a sovereign. For the trifling 
sum of ten thousand marks (the one hundredth part of its 
present yearly revenue) he mortgaged Normandy during his 
absence in the first crusade, to the English usurper ; but his 
behaviour in the Holy War, announced in Robert, a refor- 
mation of manners, and restored him in some degree to the 
public esteem." 

There is an engraving of Robert, Duke oif Normandy, in 
Ducarel's Anglo-Norman Antiq. Plate 5. 

The monument of William, Earl of Flanders, son of 
Robert, Duke of Normandy, as also two of his seals, are 
engraven in Sandford's Genealogical Hist. p. 17. 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 303 

all who had been there did not follow this fashion, 
for Edmund Crouchback, Earl of Lancaster, 
second son of king' Henry the third, had been 
there, and yet, as appears by his monument, still 
in being in Westminster-abbey, he is not repre- 
sented cross-legged.* However, it seems to have 
been a prevailing fashion till the sixth year of 
Edward the second, 1312, when the order 
of Templars coming to destruction, and into the 
highest contempt, their fashions of all kinds seem 
to have been totally abolished. 

By this it may be determined that all those 
effigies, either of wood or stone, which we find 
in country churches, whether in niches in the 
walls or on table tombs, and represented in com- 
plete armour, with a shield on the left arm, and 
the right hand grasping the sword, cross-legged, 
and a lion, talbot, or some animal couchant at 
the feet, have been set up between the ninth of 

* The monumGnt of Edmund Crouchback has been Tery 
lofty ; it was painted, gilt, and inlaid with stained glass. The in- 
side of the canopy has represented the sky with stars, but, by 
age, is changed into a dull red. On the base, towards the area 
are the remains of ten knights, armed, with banners, surcoats 
of armour, and cross-belted, representing, undoubtedly, his 
expedition to the Holy Land, the number exactly correspond- 
ing witii what Matthew Paris reports, namely, Edmund and 
his elder brother, four earls and four knights, of whom some arc 
still discoverable, particularly the Lord Roger Clifford, as 
were formerly in Wayerly's time, William de Valence and 
Thomas de Clare. • 



304 HISTORY OF 

Henry the third, 1224, and the seventh of Edward 
the second, 1313, and what corroborates this 
opinion is, that whenever any such figures are 
certainly known, either by the arms on the shield, 
or by uninterrupted tradition, they have alwayi^ 
been found to fall within that period, and when- 
ever, says Mr. LetliieuUier in the before men- 
tioned paper, I have met with such monument, 
totally forgotten, I have, on searching for the 
owners of the church and manor, found some 
person or other, of especial note, who lived in that 
age, and left little room to doubt but it was his 
memory which was intended to be preserved. 

It must, however, be acknowledged that this 
sort of monument did not entirely cease after the 
year 1312, for there is one in the church of 
Leekharapton, in Gloucestershire, which, by 
tradition, is said to be for Sir John Gifford, who 
died possessed of that manor, in the third of king 
Edward the third, 1328. 

The Rev. Dr. Nash, in his History of Worces- 
ter, has the following observations on this sort of 
monument : — " It is an opinion which universally 
prevails, with regard to the cross-legged monu- 
ments, that they were all erected to the memory 
of knights templars; now, to me, it is very 
evident that not one of them belonged to that 
order, but as Mr. Habingdon, in describing those 
at Alvechurch, hath justly expressed it, to 
" Knights of the Holy Voyage," for the order of 



SEPULCHRAI. MONUMENTS. 305 

knights templars followed the rule of the canons 
regular of St. Augustin, and as such were under 
a vow of celibacy. Now there is scarcely any one 
of these monuments which is certainly known for 
whom it was erected, but it is as certain that the 
person it represents was a married man. 

" The knights templars always wore a white 
habit, with a red cross on the left shoulder. I 
believe not a single instance can be produced of 
either the mantle or cross being carved on any of 
these monuments, which surely would not have 
been omitted, as by it they were distinguished 
from all other orders, had these been really de- 
signed to represent knights templars. 

** Lastly, this order was not confined to Eng- 
land only, but dispersed itself all over Europe, 
yet it will be very difficult to find one cross- 
legged monument any where out of England ; 
whereas no doubt they would have abounded in 
France, Italy, and elsewhere, had it been a 
fashion peculiar to that famous order. 

"But thouo'h for these reasons I cannot allow 
the cross-legged monuments to have been erected 
for knights templars, yet they have some relation 
to them ; being memorials of those zealous 
devotees, who had either been in Palestine, per- 
sonally engaged in what is called the Holy War, 
or had laid themselves under a vow to go thither, 
though perhaps they were prevented from it by 
death ; some few indeed might possibly be 

R r 



S06 HISTORY OF 

erected to the memory of persons who had made 
pilgrimages thither, merely out of devotion ; 
among" the latter probably was the lady of the 
family of Metham, of Metham in Yorkshire, to 
whose memory a cross-legged monument was 
placed in a chapel adjoining the once collegiate 
church of Howden, in Yorkshire, and is at this 
day remaining, together with that of her husband 
on the same tomb. 

" As this religious madness lasted no longer 
than the reign of our Henry the third, (the 
seventh and last crusade being published in the 
year 1268) and the whole order of knights 
templars dissolved in the seventh of Edward 
the second ; military expeditions to the Holy 
Land, as well as devout pilgrimages thither had 
their period by the year J 31 2, consequently none 
of those cross-legged monuments are of a later 
date than the reign of Edward the second, or 
the beginning of Edward the third, nor of an 
earlier than that of king Stephen, when those 
expeditions first took place in this kingdom." 

THE FOLliOWIlSa RULES WERE OBSERVED 

UY ANCIENT SCULPTORS IN ERECTING 

SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS.* 

Kings and princes, in what part, or by what 
means soever, they died, were represented upon 

^ These rules are extracted from the Antiquarian Reper- 
tory, vol. ii. p. 124; and from the Introduction to Gough's 
" History of Sepulchral Monuments," p. 115. 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. ^(^7 

their tombs clothed with their coats of arms, 
their shield, bonrlet or pad, crown, crest, sup- 
porters, lambrequins or mantlings, orders, and 
devices, upon their effigies, and round about 
their tombs. 

Knights and gentlemen might not be repre- 
sented with their coats of arms, unless they 
had lost their lives in some battle, single combat 
or rencontre with the prince himself, or in his 
service, unless they died and were buried within 
their own manors and lordships ; and then to 
shew they died a natural death in their beds, 
they were represented with their coat of armour, 
ungirded, without a helmet, bareheaded, their 
eyes closed, their feet resting against the back of 
a greyhound, and without any sword. 

Those who died on the day of battle, or in 
any mortal conflict on the side of the victorious 
party, were to be represented with a drawn 
sword in their right hand, the shield in their 
left, tlieir helmet on their head, (which some 
think ought to be closed and the vizor let down, 
as a sign that they fell fighting against their 
enemies) having their coats of arms girded over 
their armour, and their feet resting on a lion. 

Those who died in captivity, or before they 
had paid their ransom, were figured on their 
tombs without spurs or helmets, without coats 
of arms, and without swords, the scabbard thereof 
only girded to, and hanging at their side. 



308 HISTORY OF 

Those who fell on the side of the vanquished 
in a rencontre or battle were to be represented 
without coats of arms, the sword at their side 
and in the scabbard, the vizor raised and open, 
their hands joined before their breasts, and their 
feet resting against the back of a dead and over- 
thrown lion. 

Those who had been vanquished and slain in 
the lists in a combat of honour were to be placed 
on their tomb armed at all points, their battle- 
axe lying by them, the left arm crossed over the 
right. 

Those who were victorious in the lists were 
exhibited on their tombs armed at all points, their 
battle-axe in their arms, the right arm crossed 
over the left. 

It was customary to represent ecclesiastical 
persons on their tombs clothed in their respective 
sacerdotal habits. The canons with the surplice, 
square cap, and aumasse or amice, that is the 
undermost part of the priest's habit. 

The abbots were represented with their 
mitres and crosiers turned to the left. 

The bishops, with their great copes, their 
gloves in their hands, holding their crosiers with 
their left hands and seeming to give their bene- 
diction with the right, their mitres on their heads 
and their armorial bearings round their tombs 
supported by angels. 

The popes, cardinals, patriarchs, and archbi- 



SEPULCHRAI. MONUMENTS. S09 

shops were likewise all represented in their official 
habits. 

The editors of the Antiquarian Repertory 
(vol. 2. p. 226.) have given the following addi- 
tional particulars relating to these monuments : — 

*' Although the figures represented on tombs 
with their legs crossed, are commonly stiled 
Knights Templars, there are divers circumstances 
which intitled other persons to be so represented. 
The first, having served personally, though for 
hire in the Holy Land. Secondly, having made a 
vow to go thither, though prevented by sickness 
or death. Thirdly, the having contributed to 
the fitting out of soldiers or ships for that service. 
Fourthly, havmg been born with the army in 
Palestine. And lastly, by having been con- 
siderable benefactors to the order of Knio^hts 
Templars, persons were rendered partakers of 
the merits and honours of that fraternity, and 
buried with their distinctions, an idea which 
has been more recently adopted abroad by many 
great personages, who have been interred in the 
habits of Capuchins. Indeed the admission of 
laymen to the fraternity of a religious order was 
no uncommon circumstance in former days. 

<* So long as the Knights Templ-.irs remained 
m estimation it is probable that persons availed 
themselves of that privileged distinction, but as at 
its dissolution the Knights were accused of div^ers 
enormous crimes, it is not likely any one would 



310 HISTORY or 

chuse to claim brotherhood with them, or hand 
themselves or friends to posterity as members of 
a society held in detestation all over Europe, so 
that cross-legged figures, or monuments, may 
pretty safely be estimated as prior to the year 
1312, when that dissolution took place, or at 
most they cannot exceed it by above sixty or 
seventy years, as persons of sufficient age to be 
benefactors before that event, would not, accord- 
ing to the common age/ of man, outlive them 
more than that term." 

CROSS-LEGGED MONUMENTS IN THE TEMPLE 
CHURCH.* 

Geoffrey de Magnaville, first Earl of Essex. 
(1148.) 

He is represented in mail with a surcoat, and 
round helmet flatted on the top, with a nose 
piece, which was of iron to defend the nose from 
swords. His head rests on a cushion placed 
lozenge fashion, his right hand on his breast, a 
long sword at his right side, and on his left arm 
a long pointed shieliJ, charged with an escar- 
buncle on a diapered field. This is the first in- 
stance in England of arms on a sepulchral 
figure. 

This Earl, driven to despair by the confisca- 
tion of his estates by king Stephen, indulged in 
every act of violence, and making an attack on 

* This account of these monuments is extracted from 
Gough's « History of Sepulchral Monuments." 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 311 

the castle of Burwell, was there mortally wound» 
ed, and was carried off by the Templars, who 
as he died under sentence of excommunication, 
declined giving* him Christian burial, but wrap- 
ping* his body up in lead, hung- it on a crooked 
tree in the orchard of the Old Temple, London. 
William, prior of Walden, having- obtained ab- 
solution for him of the Pope, made application 
for his body, for the purpose of burying it at 
Walden, upon which the Templars took it down, 
and deposited it in the cemetery of the New 
Temple. 

William Marshall, JEarl of Pembroke. 

This monument represents a knight in mail 
with a surcoat, his helmet more completely 
rounded than the adjoining* one, and the cushion 
as in all the rest laid straiter under his head. 
He is drawing* his short dag-ger or broken sword 
with his rig-ht hand, and on his left arm has a 
short pointed shield, on which are his arms, per 
pale, or and vert, a lion rampant, gules, armed 
and langued, gules, below his knees are bands or 
g*arters, as if to separate the cuisses from the 
greaves ; his legs are crossed, and under his feet 
is a lion couchant. 

The first account of this William is in the 
28th of Henry the second, when Henry son of 
that prince, who had behaved himself rebelliously 
against his father, lying on his death .bed, with 
great penitence delivered to him, as to his most 



312 HISTORY OF 

intimate friend, his cross to carry to Jerusalem. 
He obtained from Richard the first on his first 
coming to England after his father's death, 
Isabel, daughter and heiress of Richard, Earl of 
Pembroke, in marriage, and with her that earl- 
dom. He died advanced in years at his manor 
of Caversham, near Reading, in 1219. His body 
was carried first to Reading abbey, then to 
Westminster, and last to the Temple church, 
where it was solemnly interred. 

Robert Lord Ros of Hamlake. 

The most elegant of all the figures in the 
Temple church represents a comely young knight, 
in mail, and a flowing mantle, with a kind of 
cowl; his hair neatly curled at the sides, and 
his crown appearing to be shaven. His hand$ 
are elevated in a praying posture, and on his left 
arm is a short pointed shield, charged with three 
water-bougets, the arms of the family of Ros. 
He has at his left side a long sword, and the 
armour of his legs, which are crossed, has a ridge 
or seam up the front, continued over the knee, 
and forming a kind of garter below the knee ; at 
his feet a lion. 

This Robert Lord Ros was sur named Fiirsan, 
and incurred the displeasure of king Richard the 
first, but for what offence is not said. He was 
one of the chief barons who undertook to com- 
pel king John's observance of the great charter. 
At the close of his life he took upon him th^: 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 313 

order of the Templars, and died in their habit. 
He was buried in this church in 1227. 

William 3Iitrshall, Earl of Pembroke, 

The next figure but one to that of the Earl of 
Pembroke, may be for William Marshall, eldest 
son of that Earl. It is a cross-legged knight in 
mail, with a surcoat, his helmet round, surmounted 
with a kind of round cap, and the mouth piece 
up, his hands folded on his breast, his shield long 
and pointed, and now plain : a very long sword 
at his right side ; the belt from which his shield 
hangs studded with quatre-foils, and that of his 
sword with lozenofes. 

This William Marshall died without issue in 
1231, and was buried in this church near the 
grave of his father. 

Uncertain Monuments in the Temple Church, 

The five figures in the north groupe of this 
church are not ascertained absolutely to whom 
they belong. Camden and Weever ascribe one 
of them to Gilbert Marshall, third son of the first 
William, who on the death of his brother suc- 
ceeded to the whole of the paternal inheritance, 
and lost his life at a tournament at Ware in 
1241. His bowels were buried before the high 
altar of the church of our Lady at Hertford, and 
his body in the Temple Church, London, near 
his father and brother. 

In the present state of these monuments it is 
almost impossible to ascertain the property of 

s s 



^14 HISTORY OF 

more than one of the Marshall family. The two 
effigies whose belts have the same ornaments 
were it is probable of one family. 

It may be observed that Magnaville, William 
Marshall, jun. and the last figure in the north 
groupe have their legs crossed in an unusual man- 
ner. They lie on their backs and yet cross their 
legs as if they lay on their sides. So were those 
of Henry Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, 1312, in old St. 
Paul's. 

The spurs of all are remarkably short, and 
seem rather straps with rowels. Not above two 
or three have the long pointed shoe, and two have 
their surcoats exactly reaching to the knee, 
whereas the others are of different lengths and 
fall more easily. 

Weever informs us that sepulture in this 
church was much affected by Henry the third 
j^nd his nobility. Stowe has determined that 
four of the cross-legged figures belong to the 
three earls of Pembroke and Robert Ros : " and 
these are all,'' says he, "that I can remember to 
have read of." 

Mr. Gough relates, (he says from good 
authority,) that a Hertfordshire baronet applied 
for some of these cross-legged knights to grace 
his newly erected parochial chapel, but the 
society of Benchers, discovered their good sense, 
as well as regard to antiquity, by refusing their 
compliance. 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 315 

TABLE TOMB. 

To the cross-leo'ged monument it is higlily 
probable, says Mr. Lethieullier, succeeded the 
table tomb, with figures recumbent upon it, with 
their hands joined in a praying posture, some- 
times with a rich canopy of stone over them^ 
sometimes without such canopy, and again, some 
very plain without any figures. Round the edge 
of these for the most part were inscriptions on 
brass plates, which are now too frequently de- 
stroyed. 

The table monument, however, came in more 
early than Mr. L. supposes. 

The most ancient monument of this kind that 
is extant, in England at least, of the sovereigns 
of this kingdom, is that of king John, in the 
choir of Worcester Cathedral.* His effigy lies 

* This monument was asserted by Green, in his History of 
Worcester, to have been a cenotaph, and accordingly the 
Dean and Chapter had determined on its removal^ intending 
to place it over the supposed remains of the king in the lady 
chapel. Bat on opening the tomb oa Monday, July the ITth, 
1797, the royal remains were found therein in a stone coffin, 
the internal measure of which from the feet to the top of the 
excayation hollowed out for the head, was 5 feet 6 inches and 
a half. The body was doubtless originally placed in the 
coffin, nearly in the same form, and arrayed in such a robe as 
the figure on the tomb, with his sword in his left hand, and 
booted, but it was so much deranged as evidently to shew 
that it had been disturbed, and that perhaps at its removal from 
the place of its first interment in the lady chapel, if ever that 
event had taken place, which seems to have been a coutro* 



316 HISTORY OF 

on the tomb, crowned ; in his right hand he 
holds the sceptre, in his left a sword, the point of 
which is received into the mouth of a lion 
couchant at his feet. The figure is as large as 
life. On each side of the head are cum bent 
images, in small, of the bishops St. Oswald and 
St. Wulstan, represented as censing him. — This 
monarch died in the year 1216. His bowels 
were buried in Croxlon abbey, and his body, 
which was conveyed to Worcester from Newark, 
was according to his desire, buried in that 
Cathedral. 

GRAVE STONES. 

At the same time came in common use the 
humble grave stone laid flat with the pavement, 
sometimes with an inscription cut round the 
border of the stone, sometimes enriched with 
costly plates of brass, as every person who has 
examined our cathedral and parish churches 
cannot fail to have observed. But either avarice, 
or an over zealous aversion to some words in the 
inscription, has robbed most of these stones of 
the brass which adorned them, and left the less 
room for certainty when this fashion began. 

verted point with historians. The most perfect part of the 
l)ody seemed to be the toes, on some of which the nails were 
still distinguishable, but of what the dress had originally been 
composed, could be only matter of conjecture. The influx 
of people, eager to see the royal remains after an interment 
of nearly 600 years, was so great as to be the cause of the 
tomb being closed on the following day. 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 317 

Earlier than the fourteenth century very few have 
been met with, and even towards the beginning 
of that century it is thought they were but rare. 
Mr. Lethieullier says that one was produced at a 
meeting of the Society of Antiquaries, dated 1 300.* 
Weaver mentions one in St. Paul's for Richard 
Newport, anno 1317, and gives another at 
Berkhampstead in Hertfordshire, which he by 
mistake dates 1306, the true date bein^^ 1356. 
Upon the whole, where we have not a positive 
date, it is hardly probable that an}' brass plate 
met with on grave stones can be older than 1350, 
and few so old, but from about 1380 they grew 
into common use and remained so even to the 
time of king James the first. Only after the 
reign of Edward the sixth we find the old gothic 
square letter changed into the roman round hand 
and the phrase Orate pro anima universally 
omitted. 

Towards the latter end of the fourteenth 
century a custom prevailed likewise of putting 
the inscription in French and not in Latin. These 
inscriptions are generally from 1350 to 1400, 
and very rarely afterwards. John Stow has 
indeed preserved two, which were in St. Martin's 
in the Vintry, dated 1310, and J 311. 

* The monument of Walter de Langton, Dean of York, 
who died in 1279, was the first in that Cathedral that had an 
inscription upon it. It was destroyed hy the Puritans during 
the Cromwell Usurpation. 



318 HISTORY OF 

The late editor of the Antiquities of Westinin- 
ster affirms (from what authority he does not 
say) that stone coffins were never or rarely 
used after the thirteenth century.* If this 

* Coffins formed of a single stone, hollowed with a chissel, 
arc an improvement which has been attributed to the Romans. 
Sometimes they were of marble. Some contained two or 
more bodies, others only one, in which case, it was not 
unusual for them to be made to fit the body, with cavities for 
the reception of the head and arms, and other protuberances. 
The solid stone or marble coffin, often curiously wrought, 
was in use among the first christians in England, who, in all 
probability, copied the customs of the Romans, after those 
conquerors had quitted our island. — Stone coffins were dis- 
used in the fifteenth century. None but opulent persons 
were interred in coffins of this description; the body was 
wrapped in fine linen, attired in the most honourable vest- 
ments, and laid in spices. The coffin was placed no deeper 
in the ground, than the thickness of a marble slab, or stone 
to be laid over it, even with the surface of the pavement. 
The coffin shaped stones which are frequently seen in churches 
at the present day, have, in general, been the covers of stone 
coffins. 

The leaden coffin was also in use among the Romans, not 
only for the reception of the body, but in many instances, for 
the ashes and bones. It was adopted by the christians, and 
continues in frequent use to the present time, among the 
more opulent. 

Alexander was buried in a golden coffin, by his successor 
Ptolemy; and glass coffins have been found in England. 

The oldest instance, on record, among us, of a coffin made 
of wood, is that of king Arthur, who was buried in an entire 
trunk of oak. 
It was not till the latter end of the seventeenth or the begin- 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 319 

assertion had been correct we should have had 
an aera from whence to go upwards in search of 
any of those monuments where the stone coffin 
appears, as it frequently does, but there is reason 
to doubt the accuracy of this author's statement. 
As Grecian architecture had a little dawning 
in Edward the sixth's time, and made a further 
progress in the three succeeding* reig-ns, we find, 
in the great number of monuments which were 
then erected, the small column introduced with 
its base and capital, sometimes supporting an 
arch, sometimes an architrave, but every where 
mixed with them, may be observed a great deal 
of the Gothic ornaments retained, as small spires, 
ill carved images, small square roses and other 
foliage, painted and gilt, which sufficiently 
denote the age which made them, though no 
inscriptions are left. 

HERALDIC SYMBOLS. 

Some knowledge of heraldry is very neces- 
sary in monumental researches, a coat of arms, 
device, or rebus, very often remains where not 
the least word of an inscription appears, and 
where indeed very probably there never was any. 

ning of the eighteenth century, that coffins became in general 
use in England. Before that time^ there was, in every parish 
church, a common coffin, in which the corpse was placed 
and conveyed on a bier, from the residence of the deceased, to 
the grave ; it was then taken out of the coffin and interred. 
Some of these common coffins yet remain in country churches. 



320 HISTORY OF 

Armorial bearings seem to have taken their 
rise ill this kingdom in the reign of king Richard 
the first, and by little and little to have become 
hereditary ; it was accounted most honourable to 
carry those arms which the bearers had displayed 
in the Holy Land, against the professed enemies 
of Christianity, but they were not fully established 
until the latter end of the reign of king Henry 
the third. 

King Richard the first after his return from 
his captivity in Austria, had a new great seal 
made, on which seal he first bore three lions 
passant guardant for his arms, which from this 
time became the hereditary arms of the kings of 
Ensfland. 

The arms assigned or attributed to the kings 
of the Norman dynasty, namely (jules, two lions 
passant guardant, or, Mr. Sandford, in his Gene- 
alogical History of England, says he could not 
^nd had ever been used by those Princes, either 
on monuments, coins, or seals, but that historians 
had assigned or fixed them upon the Norman 
line to distinguish it from that of their successors 
the Plantagenets, who hove gules, three lions pas- 
sant guardant, or,"^ According to the opinion of 
modern genealogists, king Henry the second, who 

* The gold noble, or half mark, struck by king Edward 
the third, in the seventeenth year of his reign, is the first 
money on which the arms of England appear, namely, three 
lions passant guardant. 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 321 

bore two lions for his arms, in the manner before 
mentioned, added, on his marriage with Eleanor 
of Aqnitaine, the arms of that dutchy, namely 
^USf a lion, or, to his own, and so was the first 
king- of England who bore three lions ; but for 
this there is no better proof than for those assign- 
ed to the Norman dynasty, for the arms of king 
Henry the second upon his monument at Fontev- 
raud in Normandy, are on a shield of a modern 
form, and on the same monument are escutcheons 
with both impalements and quarterings which 
were not used till a hundred years after his death* 

King Edward the first was the first son of a 
king of England that differenced his arms with 
a file, and the first king of England that bore his 
arms on the caparisons of his horse. 

Margaret of France, second wife of king 
Edward the first, was the first queen of England 
that bore her arms dimidiated with her husband's 
in one escutcheon, that is, both escutcheons 
being parted by a perpendicular line, ov per pale ^ 
the dexter side of the husband's shield, is joined 
to the sinister side of the wife's, which kind of 
bearing is more ancient than the impaling of the 
entire coats of arms. 

King Edward the third, in the year 1339, 
having taken upon him the title of king of France, 
was the first of our kings who quartered arms, 
bearing those of France and England, quarterly, 
and so careful were the kings, his successors, in 

T t 



322 HISTORY OF 

marshalling the arms of both kingdoms in the 
same shield, that when Charles the sixth, king 
of France, changed the sem6e of fleurs de lys 
into three, our king' Henry the fifth did the like,* 
and so it continued till the union of Great Bri- 
tain with Ireland in 1801, when the arms of 
France w^ere relinquished. 

The first example of the quartering of arms, 
is found in Spain, when the kingdoms of Castile 
and Leon were united under Ferdinand the third, 
and was afterwards imitated, as above described, 
by king Edward the third. Eleanor of Castile, 

* The three fleurs de lys were used, on some occasions, 
much earlier than this, both in France and England. There 
is an angel of Philip de Valois, coined in 1340, with the 
three fleurs de lys, which was probably done for the sake 
of variation, king Edward having then lately taken the arms 
semee de lys. Le Blanc mentions a charter of Philip, in 
1355, with a seal of the arms in like manner. There is also 
a groat of king John of France, with only three fleurs de lys, 
though he used them likewise semee. But Charles the sixth, 
who began his reign in 1380, constantly bore the Mrt'^ lys for 
the arms of France, as they have been continued ever since. 
As the Englisli kings altered the arms of France, in imitation 
of the French king, it is most likely that our Henry the fourth 
who was contemporary with Charles the sixth, began this 
practice. He did indeed bear the fleurs de lys semee^ upon 
his great seal, because it was his predecessor's, but that he 
bore i}iQ three lys upon other occasions is most likely, for so 
they are seen at the head of his monument, at Canterbury, 
and his son Henry, afterwards Henry the fifth, in like man- 
ner, bore the three fleurs de lys upon his seal, annexed to 
an indenture, so e^rfy as the sixth year of his father's reign. 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 323 

liis queen, introduced this mode of bearing arms 
into England, in which she was followed by the 
king, her husband. 

Until the time of king Edward the third, we 
find no coronets round the heads of peers. The 
figure upon the monument of John of Eltham, 
second son of king Edward the third, who died 
in 1334, and is buried in Westminster abbey, is 
adorned with a diadem, composed of a circle of 
greater and less leaves or flowers, and is the most 
ancient portraiture of an earl, says Sandford, 
that has a coronet. For the effigies of Henry 
Lacy, earl of Lincoln, on his tomb in Old St. 
Paul's, had the head encompassed with a circle 
only, and that of William de Valence, earl of 
Pembroke, half brother of king John, who died 
in 1304, and is buried in St. Edmund's chapel, 
in Westminster abbey, has only a circle, en- 
riched and embellished with stones of several 
colours, but without either points, rays, or leaves. 

John Hastings, earl of Pembroke, who died 
in 1375, was the first subject who bore two coats 
quarterly. 

Richard the second was the first of the English 
kings, who used supporters to his arms. 

Henry the sixth was the first of our kings who 
wore an arched crown, which has been ever 
since continued by his successors.* 

* The coins of king Henry the sixth, both goltl and silver^ 
are supposed to be distinguished from his father's, by the 
T t2 



324 HISTORY OF 

Henry the eighth was the first king of England 
that added to his shield, the garter and the 
crown, in imitation of which, the knights of the 
garter, in the latter end of his reign, caused their 
escutcheons on their stalls at Windsor, to 
be encompassed with the garter, and those who 
were dukes, marquesses, or earls, had their 
coronets placed on their shields, which has been 
so practised ever since. 

Queen Elizabeth was the first sovereign who 
used in her arms, a harp crowned, as an ensign 
for the kingdom of Ireland. 

King James the first was the first of our mo- 
narchs, who quartered the arms of England, 
Scotland, and Ireland in one shield. 

arched crown, surmounted with the orb and cross, being the 
first of our kings who appears with an arched crown upon his 
coins ; but upon his great seal he has an open crown, Jieurtf 
with small pearls, upon points, between. This is likewise 
the first time we see the orb with the cross upon the money, 
though it had been used upon other occasions, by almost all 
our kings, down from Edward the Confessor. The arched, 
or close crown, is not of ancient use, except in the empire, 
and thence, perhaps, called imperial. Some think Edward 
the third first used it, because he was vicar-general of the 
empire, and it is said that Henry the fifth had an imperial 
crown made, but Henry the sixth had certainly the best pre- 
tence to it, of any prince in Europe, of his time, being 
crowned king both of France and England. But why he did 
not bear it upon his great seal, as well as upon his coin, is 
not easily resolved any more than that his successor should 
bear it upon his great seal, and not upon his coins. 



SEPULCHRAI. MONUMENTS. 325 

The number of princes of the blood royal of 
the houses of York and Lancaster, may easily 
be distinguished, by the labels on their coats of 
arms, which are different for each, and very often 
their devices are added. 

Where the figure of a woman is found with 
arms both on her kirtle and mantle, those on the 
kirtle are always her own family's, and those on 
the mantle, her husband's. 

The first instance of arms on sepulchral monu- 
ments, in England, are those on the tomb of 
Geoffrey de Magnaville, first Earl of Essex, (so 
created in 1148,) in the Temple church, in Lon- 
don. Armorial bearings were used in France, 
on monuments, forty years before we find them 
in England. 

Very intimately connected with the ornaments 
and devices upon sepulchral monuments are the 
figures and dresses of our early monarchs found 
on their great seals, and of the principal nobility 
of those times on their seals. King Henry the 
third was the first English sovereign who wore 
upon his helmet a crown, and he is also the first 
king who is depicted upon his great seal as wear* 
ing rowels in his spurs in the manner in which 
they are now used, all the former kings using^ 
spurs with a single point or spike from the heel.. 

Sandford, in his Genealogical History of 
England, says, that the arms upon the seal of 



326 HISTORY OF 

John, Earl of Morton, (afterwards king John,) 
namely, two lions passant, are the first which he 
had seen upon any seal of the royal family. This 
was in the reign of king Henry the second. 

MONUMENTS FOR ECCLESIASTICS. 

As to monuments for the several degrees of 
churchmen, as bishops, abbots, priors, monks, 
&c. or of religious women, they are easily to be 
distinguished from other persons, but equally 
difficult to assign to their true owners. Among 
these, as among the before-mentioned monu- 
ments, for the most part the stone effigies are the 
oldest, with the mitre, crosier, and other proper 
insignia, and very often wider at the head than 
feet, having, indeed, been the cover to the stone 
coffins in which the body was deposited. 

When brass plates came in fashion they were 
likewise much used by bishops, &c. many of 
whose grave stones remain at this day, very 
richly adorned, and in many, the indented mar- 
ble shews that they have been so. In Salisbury 
cathedral, says Mr. Lethieullier, I found two 
very ancient stone figures of bishops, which were 
brought from Old Sarum, and are consequently 
older than the time of king Henry the third. In 
that church, likewise, the pompous marble which 
lies over Nicholas Longespee, bishop of that see, 
and son of the Earl of Salisbury, who di^d in the 
year 1297, appears to have been richly plated, 
though the brass is now quite gone, and is one of 



SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 327 

the most early of that kind which has been met 
with. Frequently, where there are no effigies, 
crosiers or crosses denote an ecclesiastic. The 
latter have been met with, but with little difference 
in their form, for every order from a bishop to a 
parish priest. 

THE SKELETON MONUMENT. 

One sort of monument more may be mentioned,,; 
which is somewhat peculiar; this is the repre- 
sentation of a skeleton in a shroud, lying either ^ 
under or upon, but generally under a table tomb. 
A monument of this kind is to be met with in 
almost all the cathedral and conventual churches 
throughout England, and scarcely ever more than 
one, but to what age the unknown ones are to be 
attributed, we have no clue to guide us, since 
there is one in York cathedral for Robert Claget, 
treasurer of that church, as ancient as 1241, and 
in Bristol cathedral, Paul Bush, the first bishop 
of that see, who died so late as 1558, is repre- 
sented in the same manner, and some of these 
figures may be found in every age between. 

These skeleton monuments represent the 
figure of a man emaciated by extreme sickness, 
or taken immediately after death ; they are 
usually of ecclesiastics, and placed with another 
figure of the same prelate, as a contrast to his 
pride, in pontificals. The art of the sculptor is 
more apparent in the first mentioned, because 
much anatomical accuracy was required. 



328 HISTORY OF SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 

One of the earliest monuments of a warrior so 
contrasted is that of John de Arundel, slain in 
the French wars, under the Duke of Bedford. 
It remains in the sepulchral chapel of that noble 
family at Arundel, and is finely sculptured in 
v/hite marble. The dead figure is indeed a 
masterly performance, and has every appearance 
of having been originally modelled from nature. 

In Exeter Cathedral there is an altar tomb, 
upon which lies the effigy of bishop Marshall, who 
died in 1203, dressed in his episcopal robes, with 
a mitre on his head, his right hand lying upon his 
breast, with the palm upwards, the fore finger, 
ring finger, and thumb extended, and the other 
fingers closed. Near this monument in a low 
niche, lies the figure of a skeleton, cut in free 
stone, with the following inscription over it : — 
^' Ista figura docet nos omnes premeditari quali- 
ter ipsa nocet mors quando venit dominari." 

The tomb of bishop Beckington in Wells 
Cathedral, who died in 1464, has his effigy in 
alabaster, habited in his episcopal robes ; and 
underneath is a representation of his skeleton. 



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